case study in education pdf

A Case for Case Study Research in Education

Cite this chapter.

• Kit Grauer  

1653 Accesses

13 Citations

This chapter makes the case that case study research is making a comeback in educational research because it allows researchers a broad range of methodological tools to suit the needs of answering questions of “how” and “why” within a particular real-world context. As Stake (1995) suggests, case study is often a preferred method of research because case studies may be epistemologically in harmony with the reader’s experience and thus to that person a natural basis for generalization.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime
• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Unable to display preview.  Download preview PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

Progress in Social and Educational Inquiry Through Case Study: Generalization or Explanation?

Portraiture

Research-Based Principles for Case-Based Learning for Teachers’ Professional Development

Bassey, M. (1999). Case study research in educational settings . Buckingham, England: Open University Press.

Google Scholar  

Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and implementation for novice researchers. The Qualitative Report , 13(4), 544–559.

Becker, H. S. (2000). Generalizing from case studies. In E. W. Eisner & A. Peshkin (Eds.), Qualitative inquiry in education: The continuing debate (pp. 233–242). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Corcoran, P. B., Walker, K. E., & Wals, A. E. (2004). Case studies, make-your-case studies, and case stories: A critique of case-study methodology in sustainability in higher education. Environmental Education Research , 10(1), 7–21.

Article   Google Scholar  

Creswell, J. (2002). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed method approaches . London, England: Sage.

Grauer, K. (1998). Beliefs of preservice teachers in art education. Studies in Art Education, 39(4) , 350–370.

Grauer, K., Irwin R. L., de Cosson, A., & Wilson, S. (2001). Images for understanding: Snapshots of learning through the arts. International Journal of Education & the Arts , 2(9). Retrieved from http://www.ijea.org/v2n9.

Guba, E. (1981). Criteria for assessing the trustworthiness of naturalistic inquiries. Educational Resources Information Center Annual Review Paper, 29 , 75–91.

Hancock, D. R., & Algozzine, B. (2006). Doing case study research: A practical guide for beginning researchers . New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Henderson, J. (2001). Reflective teaching: Professional artistry through inquiry (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Klein, S. (Ed.). (2003). Teaching art in context: Case studies for art education. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association.

Lather, P. (1992). Critical frames in educational research: Feminist and poststructural perspectives. Theory into Practice , 31(2), 87–99.

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. A. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Merriam, S. B. (1998). Case study research and case study applications in education . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded source book (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Patton, M. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Richards, L., & Richards, T. (1994). From filing cabinet to computer. In A. Bryman & R. G. Burgess (Eds.), Analysing qualitative data (pp. 146–172). London, England: Routledge.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Richards, T. J., & Richards, L. (1998). Using computers in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Collecting and interpreting qualita¬tive materials (pp. 445–462). London, England: Sage.

Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

VanWynsberghe, R., & Khan, S. (2007). Redefining case study. International Journal of Qualitative Methods , 6(2), 80–94. Retrieved from http://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index.php/IJQM/article/view/542.

Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Download references

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Editor information

Copyright information.

© 2012 Sheri R. Klein

About this chapter

Grauer, K. (2012). A Case for Case Study Research in Education. In: Klein, S.R. (eds) Action Research Methods. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137046635_4

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137046635_4

Publisher Name : Palgrave Macmillan, New York

Print ISBN : 978-1-349-29560-9

Online ISBN : 978-1-137-04663-5

eBook Packages : Palgrave Education Collection Education (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

• DOI: 10.4135/9781473913851
• Corpus ID: 108527410

Using Case Study in Education Research

• Lorna Hamilton , Connie Corbett-Whittier
• Published 19 November 2012
• Education, Computer Science

258 Citations

Case study: technology-enhanced learning in high possibility classrooms in australian schools, active learning and education 4.0 for complex thinking training: analysis of two case studies in open education, a case study of developing pedagogy about, through and for human rights education in bangladesh, the role of collaboration in a comprehensive programme design process in inclusive education, the integrating of teaching and learning through technology in high school : learning management systems (lms) and alternatives.

• Highly Influenced
• 12 Excerpts

Improving STEM Undergraduate Education with Efficient Learning Design

Using project-based learning in an environmental education course and revealing students’ experiences: a case study, feedback-based coaching towards school leaders’ professional development, social networks and gamification in physical education: a case study, teachers changing higher education : from coping with change to embracing change, related papers.

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers

Center for Teaching

Case studies.

Print Version

Case studies are stories that are used as a teaching tool to show the application of a theory or concept to real situations. Dependent on the goal they are meant to fulfill, cases can be fact-driven and deductive where there is a correct answer, or they can be context driven where multiple solutions are possible. Various disciplines have employed case studies, including humanities, social sciences, sciences, engineering, law, business, and medicine. Good cases generally have the following features: they tell a good story, are recent, include dialogue, create empathy with the main characters, are relevant to the reader, serve a teaching function, require a dilemma to be solved, and have generality.

Instructors can create their own cases or can find cases that already exist. The following are some things to keep in mind when creating a case:

• What do you want students to learn from the discussion of the case?
• What do they already know that applies to the case?
• What are the issues that may be raised in discussion?
• How will the case and discussion be introduced?
• What preparation is expected of students? (Do they need to read the case ahead of time? Do research? Write anything?)
• What directions do you need to provide students regarding what they are supposed to do and accomplish?
• Do you need to divide students into groups or will they discuss as the whole class?
• Are you going to use role-playing or facilitators or record keepers? If so, how?
• What are the opening questions?
• How much time is needed for students to discuss the case?
• What concepts are to be applied/extracted during the discussion?
• How will you evaluate students?

To find other cases that already exist, try the following websites:

• The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science , University of Buffalo. SUNY-Buffalo maintains this set of links to other case studies on the web in disciplines ranging from engineering and ethics to sociology and business
• A Journal of Teaching Cases in Public Administration and Public Policy , University of Washington

For more information:

• World Association for Case Method Research and Application

Book Review :  Teaching and the Case Method , 3rd ed., vols. 1 and 2, by Louis Barnes, C. Roland (Chris) Christensen, and Abby Hansen. Harvard Business School Press, 1994; 333 pp. (vol 1), 412 pp. (vol 2).

Teaching Guides

Quick Links

• Services for Departments and Schools
• Examples of Online Instructional Modules

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Leadership case studies in education

Leadership Case Studies in Education (2nd ed.) by Northouse and Lee (2019), the companion book to Northouse’s (2019) Leadership: Theory and Practice (8th ed.) is framed around the understanding that as educators, we are all leaders. This perspective is clearly articulated in the introductory paragraph: “By the very nature of what educators choose to do –facilitate the teaching of others– they are leaders” (Northouse & Lee, 2019, p. 1). A variety of leadership approaches are presented in the book providing a comprehensive overview of current leadership trends. Models and frameworks relevant to different leadership approaches are presented with supporting research and referencing. According to the authors, the purpose of the book is to “examine how leadership theories can be applied specifically to educational settings” (p. 2). Northouse and Lee (2019) aim to relate leadership theories to everyday leadership practice, thereby connecting the scholar and practitioner conceptualizations ...

Related Papers

Ola Elshurafa

Oxford Bibliographies

Lorri J. Santamaría

Santamaría, L. J. (2016). Theories of educational leadership. Oxford Bibliographies, Oxford University Press, DOI: 10.1093/OBO/9780199756810-0153 http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756810/obo-9780199756810-0153.xml Introduction General Overview of Educational Leadership Styles and Related Theories Textbooks and Handbooks Journals and Professional Organizations Historical and Philosophical Foundations Conceptual Approaches and Frameworks Exemplars Large Data Sets and Empirical Evidence Complementary, Diverse, and Alternative Perspectives Critical, Global, and International Applications Introduction Prior to understanding theories of educational leadership, it is important to begin with a comprehensive definition of educational leadership. In this bibliographic entry, educational leadership is the professional practice of a leader (or leaders) in an administrative role(s) working with, guiding, and influencing educators in a particular context toward improving learning and other educational processes in early childhood education centers, elementary, secondary, and postsecondary institutions. These people are most often individuals or small teams employed as school site leaders, principals, assistant or associate administrators. In early childhood, higher education or other educational settings these individuals may serve as center director, head of school, department chair, academic dean, provost, or president. Theories of educational leadership have origins in the United States (U.S.) where frameworks have been largely drawn from industry and commerce management principles. Leadership theories and practices drawn from business-oriented frames of reference have been adopted and adapted for use in educational settings in the U.S. and similarly developed nations. Therefore, theories of educational leadership have been derived from a diversity of interdisciplinary conceptualizations and models over time. As a result, theories of leadership can be considered emergent, dynamic and subject to further evolution. In fact, every theory of educational leadership is subject to investigation by researchers in educational centers, schools and university settings who seek to better understand the dynamics of leadership in a variety of educational contexts. Beyond seminal notions and ideations of educational leadership, there are developing and sometimes ground-breaking theories contributing to the existing canonical literature in the field. Nonetheless, most theories of educational leadership comprise key elements, which often include capabilities, approaches, and practices. A closer look at these elements further reveals theoretical types of educational leadership (e.g., styles, traits, behaviors), characteristics of educational leadership (e.g., management vs. leadership, power, coercion, conceptual frameworks), or the activities or practices educational leaders engage as expressions of their leadership in action (e.g., approaches, ways of leading). Each element is dependent on the educational context within which it occurs and warrants the consideration of multiple and international perspectives for 21st century relevance in a diverse and global society. This bibliography therefore includes a representative sampling of influential textbooks, handbooks, journals, and relevant literature as exemplars of sources to explain, illuminate, introduce, interrogate, and evaluate a variety of educational leadership theories. Additionally, this entry provides historical and philosophical foundations, general overviews, conceptual frameworks, supporting literature on large data sets, and multiple complementary international perspectives of the theories considered. Pertinent examples are provided from each area for further reader exploration, consideration, and study.

Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies

Prabath Withanage

This academic investigation on education leadership theories and styles sought to investigate the effect of different leadership styles practicing in educational organizations and their impact on overall performance of the organization. A summarized overview of the meaning of leadership is followed by an elaborated enquiry on different leadership theories and styles. This study followed a qualitative research approaches where secondary research data from previously published research articles will be integrated and interpreted. This article validates that identification and application of proper leadership theory and style is crucial in educational organization success. Knowledge on range of effective leadership approach offers the prospect to further refine the existing school leadership by accepting and employing the basic principles and styles of those. Based on the available reliable literature, this theoretical study concludes that understanding the most suitable leadership sty...

Prof. Nwachukwu P . Ololube

Mary Gardiner

David Mccabe

Dr. Zahid Ali

Leadership is a critical aspect of any organization, and educational institutions are no exception. School leaders play a vital role in shaping the vision and direction of a school, creating a positive school culture, and providing effective leadership to teachers and staff. Effective school leadership has been linked to improved student achievement, teacher satisfaction, and a positive school climate. However, leadership in the context of educational institutions is complex and multifaceted, and there is still much to be understood about the role of school leaders and their impact on school success. This research paper aims to explore the concept of leadership in the context of school leaders, including their roles, qualities, and challenges. This study used a qualitative research methodology, interviews were conducted with a total of four school leaders (head teachers) from different schools in the same town. Data was analyzed through systematically (organizing, transcribing, coding, categorizing) and using thematic analysis. The results of this study show that effective school leaders possess a combination of skills, qualities, and knowledge that enable them to manage the complexities of the education system, build relationships, and inspire others. This investigation yielded five school leadership practices: development of school plans, handling teammate suggestions, presence adds value, criticism handling, and task delegation. It is recommended that the administration and all stakeholders recognize the importance of motivating school leadership/headmasters/headmistresses and providing them with a smooth environment and the necessary resources to implement innovative approaches in their schools that improve quality teaching/learning. Furthermore, additional mixed method research on this issue is proposed in order to reach in-depth insights and aspirations.

Jimmy Pedroza

This paper tackles the five decades of evolution of leadership theories. Also, it points out the uniqueness of the leadership style an educational institution in progress. Examples are given to elucidate the leadership contribution of each eras. Within the discussed leadership theories, the leaders who imbibe in a particular leadership style are undressed to find out the possibilities and strong points on how they make a difference in an organisation.

International Journal of Leadership in Education

Anthony Kelly

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED PAPERS

Aan Aliyudin

Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis

Andreas Mitman

lenka ramahali

Mut Somoeun , MUT SOMOEUN

Leadership, education, organization

H. Afandi, Afandi

Linda Lambert

Journal of Educational Administration

Izhar Oplatka

Barbara Martin

Online Submission

Jim Parsons

Dr. Najmonnisa

World Journal of English Language

Dr. K Tara Shankar

International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development

NOR LIZANA KAMARUZAMAN

Elmi Zulkarnain Osman, PhD Educational Leadership

Elmi Zulkarnain Osman

Dr Neil MacNeill

International Journal of Teaching and Learning in …

Michele Morrison

Leadership and Learning

Linda Bendikson

Viviane Robinson

International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation

Jennifer Clayton

Roman Dorczak

Administração: Estudos organizacionais e sociedade 4

Tulio Barrios

Alma Harris

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

This site belongs to UNESCO's International Institute for Educational Planning

IIEP Learning Portal

Search form

• issue briefs
• Improve learning

Socioeconomic inequalities and learning

Social and economic inequalities have important and long-lasting effects on children’s cognitive and socio-emotional development as well as on educational outcomes (Grantham-McGregor et al., 2007; Shonkoff and Garner, 2012). Multiple inequities combine, producing a negative impact on the ability of marginalized children to learn (Suárez-Orozco, Yoshikawa, and Tseng, 2015). Thus the gap between advantaged and disadvantaged children widens over time (Shonkoff and Garner, 2012; Suárez-Orozc, Yoshikawa, and Tseng, 2015).

In contexts of high inequality, good quality and equitable education is key to the inclusive, peaceful, and sustained development of a society and a country. Ensuring the participation of marginalized groups and individuals in broader development processes helps reduce social inequalities. Inversely, unless attention is paid to equitable access, learning opportunities, and quality learning outcomes, education can entrench existing inequalities or create new ones.

Socioeconomic inequalities and education in the 2030 Agenda

• Leaving no one behind. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development regards equity as central to achieving sustainable development and calls for leaving no one behind. This means including all vulnerable countries and ensuring all people, regardless of their background, have the right to fulfill their potential and to lead decent, dignified, and rewarding lives in a healthy environment. Sustainable development goal (SDG) 10 is specifically dedicated to reducing inequality, with a focus that goes far beyond economic inequality: ‘By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other status’ (SDG10.2) (United Nations, 2015).
• Addressing inequalities in education at the core of SDG 4. SDG 4 stresses the need to combat all forms of exclusion and inequalities relating to access to education and learning processes. This requires refocused efforts to improve learning outcomes for the full life cycle, especially for women, girls, and marginalized people in vulnerable settings. Equity is all-inclusive within SDG 4 (‘all girls and boys’, with all indicators disaggregated by sex) but is also the focus of a specific target (SDG 4.5): ‘By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations’ (United Nations, 2015).

How socioeconomic inequalities affect learning

Whereas wide disparities exist across countries, this brief focuses on socioeconomic inequalities between groups or individuals within countries. It is important to understand who is vulnerable to marginalization and exclusion and how different types of exclusion affect learning.

Exclusion is contextual and influenced by supply- and demand-side barriers that prevent children and young people from enrolling and/or succeeding at school. Exclusion can occur:

• at the individual level , based on socioeconomic status (poverty or low levels of parental education), location of residence (rural vs. urban, regional disparities), or other vulnerabilities;
• at the group level (marginalized ethnic or linguistic groups, nomadic or indigenous peoples, gender or socio-cultural and religious factors, or migration status); or
• as the result of environmental and contextual factors, such as state fragility, conflict, or natural disaster that often lead to displacement.

Factors of exclusion

• Poverty. Children from poor families are less likely to meet the basic pre-requisites for learning and are often ill-prepared to attend school. Children who live in low-resourced communities are more likely to be malnourished, to have absent parents, and to be exposed to violence and stress. Their schools may receive less funding. These factors often lead to poor outcomes (Grantham-McGregor et al., 2007; Shonkoff and Garner, 2012). School attendance may be affected by the need to work to contribute to family finances and by difficulties with paying school fees and other costs.
• Parental education and literacy. The home environment plays a critical role in children’s development and early learning (Save the Children, 2018). Results from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) show that children of parents with high socioeconomic status demonstrated higher reading literacy than children of parents with low socioeconomic status (Xin Ma, 2008). Findings from the Third Regional Comparative and Explanatory Study (TERCE) show that students achieve higher when their parents believe they will reach higher education (UNESCO Santiago, 2015). Inequities in parents’ level of education can significantly affect children’s ability to benefit from formal schooling. Parents who have not attended school, or who are illiterate, may avoid engaging in homework activities with their children or interacting with teachers and other service providers (Eccles, 2005; Tusiime et al., 2014). They may be unable to provide access to books and other literacy materials.
• Location of residence. Most countries have regionally unequal conditions of economic development, funding, and social services, as well as significant rural-urban divides. Schools in low-resourced areas – including rural areas and informal urban settlements – often receive less funding than schools in high-resourced areas. This results in reduced access to early childhood centres, high-quality schools, and well-trained teachers. This, in turn, results in lower literacy rates, poor academic performance, and higher drop-out rates, ultimately contributing to the cycle of poverty (Hindle, 2007). According to a 2018 UNICEF report, the poorest urban children in 1 in 6 countries are less likely to complete primary school than their counterparts in rural areas (UNICEF, 2018).
• Gender. In many countries, girls have less access to schools than boys and are more likely to drop out early. Factors may include practical matters, such as distance, safety, adequate facilities, etc. as well as expectations regarding participation in household chores, child marriage practices, etc., and limited opportunities for girls’ employment after school (GEM Report, 2016; Rihani, 2006; UNESCO, 2012). In some countries boys may drop out of school or underperform because of pressures to earn money or because school is deemed irrelevant (GEM Report, 2016). In school, teaching practices or instructional materials may contain gender stereotyping (Rihani, 2006), and students may face school-related gender-based violence that severely impedes their learning.
• Sexual orientation and gender identity. Bullying, violence, and other mistreatment is often compounded for LGBTI or gender non-conforming children and young people (UNESCO Bangkok, 2015), and has a significant educational impact. They may miss classes, avoid school activities, or drop out of school altogether. International learning assessments show that bullying reduces students’ achievements in key subjects such as mathematics (UNESCO, 2017b).
• Ethnicity, religion, and culture. Children who face direct and indirect discrimination based on their ethnicity, religion, or culture may suffer from negative psychological and physical effects from an early age (Shonkoff and Garner, 2012. This may cause them to underperform or struggle to learn.
• Language. International surveys regularly show that speaking a language in the home other than the language of instruction at school amounts to a handicap (Duru-Bellat, 2004), which leads to a greater risk of grade repetition and drop out (Pinnock, 2009).
• Conflicts, crises, disasters, and displacement. The experience of conflicts, crises, and disasters can leave children physically and emotionally traumatized. Migrant and refugee or displaced children may not have the formal residence papers allowing them to attend school or may face hostility and prejudice in school. Due to damage and/or insecurity, children may not have access to school buildings, learning materials, or qualified teachers (GEM Report, 2018b; IIEP-UNESCO, 2011).

Policy and planning responses

Education policies are among the most powerful levers to reduce income disparities. ‘In countries with currently low levels of education attainment, policies that promote equal access to basic education could help reduce inequality by facilitating the accumulation of human capital, and making educational opportunities less dependent on socio-economic circumstances’ (Brueckner, Dabla-Norris and Gradstein, 2014: 19). Education policies need to be inclusive, with the principle of equity being fundamental to all education sector plans and policies (UNESCO, 2017a). In addition, targeted policies to address specific instances of exclusion should be introduced.

Pro-poor education policies

Inequities can be addressed, and learning outcomes improved, when governments ensure that the most disadvantaged children and their families have access to quality education services in the formative years (Grantham-McGregor et al., 2007; Shonkoff and Garner, 2012).

Policy-makers should provide fair funding and special assistance to the lowest-performing schools and students, and implement school-community partnerships. They should identify priority education zones to compensate for regional funding disparities, and allocate resources based on specific criteria (e.g. percentage of children of foreign origin or whose mother tongue is not the language of instruction). (Duru-Bellat, 2004).

Pro-poor education policies that promote equal access to basic education, such as cash transfers to encourage attendance or spending on public education that benefits the poor, can reduce inequality by helping build human capital and making educational opportunities less dependent on socioeconomic circumstances (WEF, 2014).

Extending access to private schools through vouchers to reduce segregation has been implemented in some countries, with mixed results.

Targeted policies to address specific dimensions of exclusion

Education planners may also ensure targeted support for population groups faced with specific types of discrimination.

• Early childhood education policies should target the most disadvantaged children before they enter school.
• Language/bilingual education policies may help improve the educational outcomes of children whose mother tongue is not the language of instruction.
• Inclusive school curricula and teaching and learning materials can help reduce discrimination (e.g. providing age-appropriate information on sexual health, including information on sexual and gender diversity, can help address bullying).
• ICT policies can provide the tools to help close the educational divide and make classrooms an inclusive place for all (UNESCO, 2011).
• Policies to combat bullying based on gender and sexual identity can help schools establish relevant mechanisms and reporting requirements, and outline sanctions for non-compliance. For example, the Philippines 2013 Anti-Bullying Act provides the framework for national awareness-raising initiatives and school policies (UNESCO Bangkok, 2018).
• Moving to later tracking can ensure that all students get a broad education. Later tracking is associated with better outcomes, particularly for disadvantaged children, who are more likely to otherwise be directed into vocational education (Blanden and McNally, 2014).
• Affirmative action policies encourage and train people from under-represented groups to help them overcome disadvantages in competing with others, particularly in higher education. The benefits are widely recognized, but each country takes a different approach (e.g. Sweden pays special attention to gender, India to caste, and Sri Lanka to the district of origin) (GEM Report, 2018a).
• Crisis-sensitive education sector plans and policies can build resilient systems, help prepare for potential disasters or conflict, and provide equitable access to schooling in crisis- and conflict-affected areas.
• Non-formal or alternative education policies may target children and young people who are outside the formal school system. Adapted curricula and methods can reconnect young people to education or provide them with the skills needed to enter the world of work: ‘Non-formal education … can play a crucial role in providing second-chance education for out-of-school children … [as long as] such educational opportunities provide a recognized pathway into the formal system’ (UIS and UNICEF, 2015: 41).

The need for holistic and cross-sectoral policies

Policy-makers and planners need to investigate other ways to mitigate the impact of inequities on learning outcomes, including health interventions, parenting and community support, and employment policies. Targeting families and communities is particularly important as educational outcomes are shaped much more by the family than by the school. Families are responsible for the initial socialization of their children and for nurturing their educational aspirations (Duru-Bellat, 2004).

Social inequities may also be addressed through wider policies to fight racism and discrimination, strategies for welcoming refugees and migrants into communities, and child-friendly spaces for children who have experienced trauma. Due to the interconnected and cumulative nature of most social inequities, working both outside and inside schools is the best way to ensure that all children meet their learning potential (Suárez-Orozco, Yoshikawa, and Tseng, 2015).

Plans and policies

• El Salvador: Política de equidad e igualdad de género  (2019)
• Malta: Trans, gender variant and intersex students in schools: policy  (2015)
• South Africa: Rural education draft policy  (2017)
• Chronic Poverty Advisory Network, 2012. ‘ Chronic Poverty and Education: A guide to what works in policy and practice’ . Education Policy Guide.
• Education for All Fast Track Initiative Secretariat, EFA-FTI; United Nations. 2010. Equity and inclusion in education: A guide to support education sector plan preparation, revision, and appraisal. Washington, D.C.: EFA-FTI Secretariat.
• UIS; FHI360; Oxford Policy Management; University of Cambridge, Research for Equitable Access and Learning Centre. 2018. Handbook on measuring equity in education . Montreal: UIS.
• UNESCO. 2017. A guide for ensuring inclusion and equity in education . Paris: UNESCO. 
• UNESCO-IBE. 2016. Training tools for curriculum development: Reaching out to all learners: A resource pack for supporting inclusive education. Paris: UNESCO.

Blanden, J.; McNally, S. 2014. Reducing inequality in education and skills: implications for economic growth . EENEE Analytical Report No. 21. European Expert Network on Economics of Education.

Brueckner, M.; Dabla-Norris, E.; Gradstein, M. 2014.  ‘ National income and its distribution ’ , IMF Working Paper WP/14/101.

Duru-Bellat, M. 2004. Social inequality at school and educational policies . Paris: UNESCO-IIEP.

Eccles, J.S. 2005. ‘Influences of parents' education on their children's educational attainments: The role of parent and child perceptions’. In: London Review of Education, 3(3) , 191-204.

GEM (Global Education Monitoring) Report. 2016. Gender review: Creating sustainable futures for all . Paris: UNESCO.

––––.  2018a. ‘Everyone benefits from diversity on campus – why the problem with affirmative action?’

––––. 2018b. Global education monitoring report, 2019: Migration, displacement, and education: building bridges, not walls . Paris: UNESCO.

Grantham-McGregor, S.; Cheung, Y.B.; Cueto, S.; Glewwe, P.; Richter, L.; Strupp, B. 2007. ‘Developmental potential in the first 5 years for children in developing countries’. In: The Lancet , 369(9555), 60–70.

Hindle, D. 2006. ‘The funding and financing of schools in South Africa’. In: Commonwealth Secretariat, Commonwealth Education Partnerships 2006/2007 (pp. 148-150). Cambridge: Nexus Strategic Partnerships.

IIEP-UNESCO. 2011. Integrating conflict and disaster risk reduction into education sector planning: guidance notes for educational planners . Paris: IIEP.

Pinnock, H. 2009. Steps towards learning: a guide to overcoming language barriers in children's education. London: Save the Children UK.

Rihani, M. 2006. Keeping the promise: five benefits of girls’ secondary education. Washington DC: Academy for Educational Development.

Save the Children. 2018. ‘ Beyond access: Exploring equity in early childhood learning and development’ .

Shonkoff, J.P.; Garner, A.S. 2012. ‘ The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress ’. In: Pediatrics , 129 (1).

Suárez-Orozco, C.; Yoshikawa, H.; Tseng, V. 2015. ‘Intersecting inequalities: Research to reduce inequality for immigrant-origin children and youth’ . William T. Grant Foundation Paper.

Tusiime, M.; Friedlander, E.; Malik, S. 2014. ‘Literacy Boost Rwanda. Literacy ethnography baseline report ’.

UIS (UNESCO Institute for Statistics); UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund). 2015. Fixing the broken promise of education for all: Findings from the Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children. Montreal: UIS.

UNESCO. 2011. Transforming education: The power of ICT policies. Paris: UNESCO.

––––. 2012. From access to equality: Empowering girls and women through literacy and secondary education . Paris: UNESCO.

––––. 2017a. A guide for ensuring inclusion and equity in education. Paris: UNESCO.

––––. 2017b. School violence and bullying: Global status report. Paris: UNESCO.

UNESCO Bangkok. 2015. From insult to inclusion: Asia-Pacific report on school bullying, violence, and discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity. Paris: UNESCO.

––––. 2018. School-related violence and bullying on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity or expression (SOGIE): Synthesis report on China, the Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam. Bangkok: UNESCO Bangkok.

UNESCO Santiago. 2015. TERCE: associated factors, executive summary. Santiago de Chile: OREALC

UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund). 2018. Advantage or Paradox: The challenge for children and young people growing up urban . New York: UNICEF. Retrieved from:

United Nations. 2015. Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

WEF (World Economic Forum) 2014. ‘Why education policies matter for equality ’ .

Xin Ma. 2008. ‘ A global perspective on socioeconomic differences in learning outcomes’ . Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2009 .

Related information

• Education Equity Research Initiative
• Spatial Education Inequalities website
• Inter-Agency Group on Education Inequality Indicators (IAG-EII)
• World Inequality Database on Education

This report is part of the thematic and country-level evaluation of GPE’s global and country-level support to its partner countries as part of its Strategic Plan for 2021–2025 (GPE 2025). To operationalize this strategy, GPE’s operating model seeks to support governments to transform their education systems.

El Salvador was selected as one of eight country cases for study as part of Phase 1 of the evaluation, which explores the country’s potential for transformative reform by closely examining the process of the partnership compact development, selection of its priority reform, and potential for implementation.

Visit country page: El Salvador

• Work & Careers
• Life & Arts

Business school teaching case study: Turning off carbon while keeping the lights on

• Business school teaching case study: Turning off carbon while keeping the lights on on x (opens in a new window)
• Business school teaching case study: Turning off carbon while keeping the lights on on facebook (opens in a new window)
• Business school teaching case study: Turning off carbon while keeping the lights on on linkedin (opens in a new window)
• Business school teaching case study: Turning off carbon while keeping the lights on on whatsapp (opens in a new window)

Morris Mthombeni and Albert Wocke

Roula Khalaf, Editor of the FT, selects her favourite stories in this weekly newsletter.

Read the professors’ business school-style case study before considering the issues raised in the box at the end.

At the end of last year, Dan Marokane became the 12th chief executive of Eskom in the past decade alone. He returned to the embattled South African state-owned utility monopoly, which he had left in 2015, to tackle the tensions between fixing the company to ensure energy security in South Africa and meeting its “just energy transition” commitments to lower emissions.

At COP26, the UN Climate Change Conference in Glasgow, in December 2021, the US, EU, UK, France and Germany pledged $8.5bn to help South Africa shut its coal-fired powered stations. Eskom generates more than 90 per cent of electricity used in South Africa and the Southern African Development Community region, of which 85 per cent is produced from fossil fuels.

Overall, the energy sector contributes 41 per cent of South Africa’s CO₂ emissions, according to the World Bank , earning Eskom the dubious honour of being called “the world’s worst polluting power company” by some environmental groups. Eskom also finds itself at odds with climate activists and academics such as those from University College London and the International Institute for Sustainable Development, who argue that “no more fossil fuel projects are needed as renewable energy sources take up the demand”.

In addition, since 2008, Eskom has struggled with debilitating national blackouts euphemistically known as “load shedding”. These were caused by insufficient generation to meet demand for power as a result of poor management, corruption and bad political decisions. Electricity prices spiked and the lack of power further weakened the South African economy, costing as much as £40mn per day.

The authors

Morris Mthombeni and Albert Wocke are professors at the Gordon Institute of Business Science at the University of Pretoria in South Africa; Professor Mthombeni is also dean at Gibs

During the first half of 2024, the situation appeared finally to be stabilising, following the appointment of Mteto Nyati as Eskom chairman. Nyati had a successful track record in the technology and telecommunication sectors. Marokane, as a new chief executive with a supportive board chair, is also able to draw on his prior experience at Eskom, when he was in charge of generation.

Marokane has cautioned that, while there has been no load shedding for several months, “South Africa is not out of the woods yet”. His strategy includes carrying out extensive maintenance at underperforming coal-fired power stations that had been poorly maintained, and dismissing corrupt or incompetent managers. The turnaround is complicated by a new business model and the need for Eskom to move to cleaner energy production as part of the just transition programme.

Eskom was a vertically integrated business since its inception in 1923 but, in 2019, the South African government began a process of unbundling the company into separate subsidiaries for generation, transmission and distribution. The objective was to tackle the problems that led to load shedding and improve efficiency and transparency, reduce rent seeking, and protect capital providers interests.

The first division to be spun off in July this year was transmission, now an Eskom subsidiary known as the National Transmission Company South Africa, which operates with a separate board and management team. This has the potential to be the most profitable of the subsidiaries and will run the transmission system and buy electricity from multiple generators, not only Eskom. It will eventually provide a platform for generators, consumers, retailers and traders to trade with each other, as happens in a number of other countries. But Marokane might want to push back the timing of the spin-off for two related reasons.

First, Eskom ought to protect its less profitable generation division, currently dominated by fossil-fuel energy sources. In July, Eskom spoke out against government plans to issue licences allowing private generators to sell directly to customers, and to permit the import of energy into South Africa. The company was concerned that applicants would be able to cherry-pick customers, leaving existing small users without the present cross-subsidy from larger consumers.

Second, to meet its carbon emission reduction targets, Eskom must find a way to address a continuing reliance on fossil fuels as the main source of energy in its generation division. The company had pledged at COP26 to reduce emissions from 442mn tons a year to between 350mn and 420mn tons by 2030. Retaining transmission capability within Eskom could help support a sustainable restructure, leading to a better funded just transition plan.

Marokane was confident Eskom would reduce about 71mn tons of CO₂ from generation by 2030, as it aggressively built a renewable energy portfolio. Yet it has failed to repurpose its 63-year-old 1,000MW Komati power station, east of Pretoria — it was finally decommissioned in October 2022.

Owing to the social consequences of the loss of hundreds of jobs at the fossil-fuelled Komati, which were replaced by many fewer focusing on social entrepreneurship initiatives, Marokane described it as an “ atomic bomb scenario in terms of social discord”.

Despite partnering with the South African Renewable Energy Technology Centre and the Global Energy Alliance for People and Planet to redeploy the hundreds of people who lost jobs after the closure of Komati, Eskom has found that the path to a just energy transition is not a smooth one.

Discussion points

See the FT video above, and:

ft.com/eskom-case1

ft.com/eskon-case2

Considering the current strategy to unbundle Eskom into generation, distribution and transmission subsidiaries, how can the company make its generation business comfortably profitable?

Is the organisational restructure a crucial part of Eskom’s plan to achieve its emission reduction targets? If Eskom believed the restructure was unnecessary for it achieve its 2030 emissions reduction targets, could Marokane and his team consider retaining the current structure for the foreseeable future?

Promoted Content

Follow the topics in this article.

• Masters in Management Add to myFT
• African companies Add to myFT
• Renewable energy Add to myFT
• Business school case Add to myFT
• Utilities Add to myFT

• Skip to main content
• Skip to search
• Skip to footer

Products and Services

​​Cisco Catalyst IE9300 Rugged Series Switches​

​​build high-performing networks with versatile switches​.

​​Create smarter, safer, and faster industrial networks. Boost performance, scale, visibility, and security with switches designed for a wide variety of use cases across multiple industries.

Unlock the potential of your industrial network

An introduction to the Catalyst IE9300 Rugged Series

Get more power for your devices and more bandwidth for your applications. Support Wi-Fi 6/6E access points and boost enterprise connectivity with a seamless switching fabric.

One switch family. Unlimited possibilities.

​​Along production lines. Inside electric substations. At the airport and in roadway intersections. Catalyst IE9300 Rugged Series switches power almost all types of industry needs.​

​Manage and secure operations with tools you trust​

​​Cisco Catalyst Center helps you to shorten deployment cycles and operate efficiently at scale. Keep an eye on your assets with Cyber Vision and get added peace of mind through integrations with Cisco security applications. ​

Aggregate and distribute traffic

Connect multiple access switches or fiber rings to core switching layers using the high-bandwidth 10-gigabit uplink ports and outdoor deployment in rugged non–climate controlled environments.

​​Get more power and bandwidth for your devices​

​​Connect power-hungry and bandwidth-thirsty devices, like high-resolution cameras and Wi-Fi 6/6E access points, to switches with multigigabit ports and large Power over Ethernet capacity.​​

​​Catalyst IE9300 Rugged Series models​

​​IE-9320-22S2C4X

For deployments that need fiber access or aggregation, simple scalability, and precision timing input.

• ​​​​22 GE SFP, 4 10GE SFP+, and 2 GE dual-media ports
• ​​High switching capacity with backplane stacking
• Precision timing input​ with GNSS and IRIG-B receivers
• ​​Conformal coating for added environmental protection
• ​​Advanced industrial security and lossless resiliency protocols​

​​IE-9320-24T4X​

For deployments that need high-density copper ports, easy scalability, and traffic aggregation.​

• ​​24 GE copper and 4 10GE SFP+ ports​
• ​​High switching bandwidth with backplane stacking​
• ​​Advanced industrial security and resiliency protocols​

​​IE-9320-16P8U4X​

For deployments that need to connect high-power, high-bandwidth devices and for traffic aggregation​.​

• ​​​16 GE and 8 multigigabit copper, and 4 10GE SFP+ ports
• ​​PoE/PoE+/4-pair PoE with up to 90W per port, 720W total PoE budget
• ​​High switching bandwidth with backplane stacking
• ​​Advanced industrial security and resiliency protocols

​​IE-9320-26S2C​

For deployments that need high-density fiber access ports and easy scalability.​

• ​​​​26 GE fiber and 2 GE dual-media ports
• ​​High switching capacity with backplane stacking​
• ​​Advanced industrial security and lossless resiliency protocols

​​IE-9320-24P4X​

​​For deployments that require Power over Ethernet (PoE), easy scalability, and traffic aggregation.​

• ​​​24 GE copper with PoE and 4 10GE SFP+ ports 
• ​​PoE/PoE+ with 720W of total PoE budget 

​​IE-9320-24P4S​

​​For deployments that need copper ports​ with PoE.

• ​​​24 GE copper with PoE and 4 GE SFP ports
• ​​PoE/PoE+ with 385W total PoE budget

​​IE-9310-26S2C​

​​For deployments that need high-density fiber access ports.

• ​​26 GE fiber and 2 GE dual-media ports

​​Powered by Cisco DNA software​

​Get your industrial network working smarter and faster. Cisco DNA software subscriptions make it easy​

​​See how they could work for you​

Get a closer look at the switches that drive some of the toughest industrial networks in the world.

​​More ways to boost your network​

​​cisco industrial ethernet ​.

​​See the whole range, explore features, and find the right fit for you.​

Simplify and scale IT for industrial networks

Take advantage of the cloud to deliver advanced OT services to your industrial network.

​​View Cisco Validated Design guides​

​​Reduce risk with detailed guidance on designing and setting up your industrial network.​

Discover more resources

​​Learn more with blogs, videos, and product guides.​

​​Save with an Enterprise Agreement​

​​Get all the Cisco IoT networking equipment and software licenses you’ll ever need with one simple, cross-portfolio agreement.​

​​Save on software and licensing​

​​Cisco Enterprise Agreement​

​​One licensing agreement for all your Cisco software​

​​Cisco Customer Experience services​

​​Get guidance from the network experts​

​​Reduce risk, accelerate transformation, and bring your network to peak performance with expert guidance, validated designs, best practices, and proven processes.​

​​Talk it through with the team​

​​Get all your questions answered in a custom demo with our IoT networking experts. They’ll work with you to create the right solution for your business.​