critical thinking in the efl classroom

MINI REVIEW article

English as a foreign language teachers’ critical thinking ability and l2 students’ classroom engagement.

• School of Foreign Studies, Hebei University, Baoding, China

Critical thinking has been the focus of many studies considering the educational and social contexts. However, English as a foreign language (EFL) context is the one in which studies about critical thinking and its link to classroom engagement have not been carried out as much as expected. Hence, this study investigated to understand the association between EFL teachers’ critical thinking ability and students’ classroom engagement to get a broader understanding of the impact critical thinking has on students’ success. To do this, firstly, both variables of this study are defined and explicated. Then, the relationship between critical thinking and students’ classroom engagement is discussed. Finally, the implications of this research and also its limitations along with suggestions for further studies are put forward.

Introduction

“Critical thinking enables individuals to use standards of argumentation, rules of logic, standards of practical deliberation, standards governing inquiry and justification in specialized areas of study, standards for judging intellectual products, etc.” ( Bailin et al., 1999 , p. 291). Paul and Elder (2007) conceptualized critical thinking as the art of analysis and evaluation, considering the point that it can be improved since a quality life needs the quality of thinking. Facione (2011) noted that happiness cannot be guaranteed even if good judgment is practiced and critical thinking is enhanced; however, it undoubtedly offers more opportunities for this goal to be achieved. It has been stressed that autonomy can be shaped through critical thinking ability and one’s learning process can critically be evaluated ( Delmastro and Balada, 2012 ). According to a study conducted by Marin and Pava (2017) , English as a foreign language (EFL) critical thinker has the following characteristics: they are active, continuously asking questions, and seeking information which helps them build associations between L2 learning and other features of everyday life. They describe as people, having the capability to analyze and organize thoughts that can be expressed through speaking and writing. They almost always tries to put what has learned before into practice. Beyond doubt, in order to enhance critical thinking skill in EFL learners, teachers should consider the point that teaching is not just about grammar and vocabulary; instead, it concentrates on enhancing teaching, encouraging to be creative, encourage to learn independently, strategies for making decisions and evaluating himself. Similarly, opportunities must be provided by the educators to provide a learning environment in which autonomous learning, active engagement, reflection on learners’ learning process, and L2 advancement are emphasized, for instance, task-based activities. Thus, this study is different from other studies since the focus is placed on teachers’ critical thinking ability to help students thrive rather than students’ critical thinking ability. The reason is that differentiates it from the previous studies is that providing students with opportunities, in which thinking differently is appreciated, would be absolutely rewarding and it is the skill that should be much more highlighted in the studies. Therefore, critical thinking is a skill through which students’ confidence can be raised, leading to their active engagement in the classroom and their being successful since they can see the issues from a different point of view and novel solutions to those problems can be proposed. In the current study, first of all, both teachers’ critical thinking ability and students’ classroom engagement have been discussed. Given that, the association between these two variables has been dealt with. Then, the implications and restrictions of the study as well as some recommendations for further studies have been proposed.

Teachers’ Critical Thinking Ability

Critical thinking has attracted much attention since teachers’ way of thinking and beliefs has a pivotal impact on what students achieve in terms of academic success and attainments. Dewey (1933 , p. 9), who can be regarded as the father of modern critical thinking, conceptualized it as “active, persistent, and careful of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds which support it and the further conclusions to which it tends.” As defined by Chance (1986) , critical thinking is conceptualized as the capability that one puts into practice to do the followings through this ability: facts which are analyzed, ideas that are generated and organized, opinions that are defended, comparisons that are made, inferences that are drawn, arguments which are evaluated, ideas that are organized, and problems that are solved. As stated by Vdovina and Gaibisso (2013) , critical thinking is relevant to quality thinking that enables learners to communicate with others, gain knowledge, and deal with ideas, attitudes, and beliefs in a more skillful way. Based on what has been proposed by Shirkhani and Fahim (2011) , critical thinking is an integral factor in many ways. The first reason that can be taken into consideration is that when language learners take responsibility for the way they think; they can evaluate the way they learn in a more successful way. Secondly, critical thinking causes learners to experience a meaningful process of learning in which learning a language is meaningful to them. Thirdly, critical thinking and learners’ achievement are positively correlated. If the learners are shown how to think critically, they get proficient in learning a language. Likewise, Liaw (2007) study indicated that when the content-based approach is implemented in the class, it promotes EFL students’ critical thinking skills. It should be noted that in a content-based approach, attention is focused on the content and what can be perceived through it.

Besides, as Davidson (1998) noted, “the English teachers are expected to provide learners with the ability to communicate with native speakers, valuing overt comments, clever criticism, and intellectual claims.” In a similar manner, Meyers (1986) proposed that teachers can facilitate critical thinking through the activities that are assigned, the tasks that are set, and the feedback that is provided. A study done in a Chinese context by Li and Liu (2021) put forward the taxonomy of critical thinking ability in the EFL learning context and in this study, five skills through which critical thinking can be practiced, were proposed: analyzing, inferring, evaluating, synthesizing, and self-reflection/self-correction ( Wang and Derakhshan, 2021 ). Li (2021) also indicated that the development of critical thinking in international students can be facilitated by learning Chinese. According to a study done by Birjandi and Bagherkazemi (2010) , a critical thinker has the following characteristics:

• problems are identified by them and relevant solutions are dealt with,

• valid and invalid inferences are recognized by them,

• decisions and judgments are suspended by them when there is not enough evidence to prove it

• the difference between logical reasoning and justifying is perceived by them

• relevant questions are asked by them to see if their students have understood

• statements and arguments are evaluated

• lack of understanding can be accepted by them

• they have developed a sense of curiosity

• clear criteria for analyzing ideas are defined

• he is a good listener and gives others feedback

• he believes that critical thinking is a never-ending process that needs to be evaluated

• judgment is suspended by them until all facts have been collected

• they seek evidence for the assumptions to be advocated

• opinions are adjusted by them when there are some new facts

• incorrect information is easily rejected by them.

Consequently, according to the characteristics mentioned above, teachers with the ability to think critically is good problem solvers and when facing a problem during the class, they can have greater reasoning skills so as to find a solution to the problem. They are curious and they also ask their students questions to create a sense of curiosity in them. Additionally, they do not accept the new ideas easily, instead, they analyze them and sometimes make them better.

Classroom Engagement

Engagement is an inseparable part of the learning process and a multifold phenomenon. Classroom engagement refers to the amount of participation that students take in the class to be actively involved in the activities and whether the mental and physical activities have a goal. Engagement itself is a context-oriented phrase which relies on cultures, families, school activities, and peers ( Finn and Zimmer, 2012 ). It has been categorized into different groups: Behavioral engagement such as the amount to which students participate actively in the class; emotional engagement pertains to high levels of enthusiasm which is linked to high levels of boredom and anxiety; cognitive engagement such as the usage of learning strategy and self-regulation; agentic engagement such as the amount of conscious effort so that the learning experience would be enriched ( Wang and Guan, 2020 ; Hiver et al., 2021 ). Amongst the aforementioned categories, the one which is strongly important in the learning process is behavioral engagement in that it is relevant to the actual recognition of an individual’s learning talents ( Dörnyei, 2019 ). Another possibility that can be viewed is to consider engagement from two other aspects, internal and external. The former implies how much time and effort is allocated to the process of the learning. The latter entails the measures that are taken at the institutional level so that the resources would be dealt with along with other options of learning and services for support, encouraging the involvement in activities leading to the possible outcomes such as consistency and satisfaction ( Harper and Quaye, 2009 ).

Much attention is deserved to be paid to engagement since it is perceived as a behavioral means with which students’ motivation can be realized and as a result, development through the learning process can occur ( Jang et al., 2010 ). Active involvement should be strengthened in L2 classes to prevent disruptive behaviors and diminish the valence of emotions that are negative such as feeling anxious, frustrated, and bored.

Regarding “classroom engagement,” its opposie word “disengagement” can play a significant role in not engaging the students in the class, leading to them feeling bored and demotivated in the class, so from this aspect, it would be worth considering this phrase as well. It has been claimed by some authors ( Skinner, 2016 ) that disengagement itself does not happen frequently in educational settings due largely to the fact that it is related to extreme behaviors, and it is when another phrase disaffection can be considered significant. Disaffection is characterized by disinterest, aversion, resignation, and reduced effort. Therefore, our perception of boredom as a complex emotion can be enhanced, and it can be dealt with more systematically if boredom is viewed through the following factors, disengagement, and disaffection ( Wang and Guan, 2020 ; Derakhshan et al., 2021 ). As Elder and Paul (2004) mentioned, students should be taught to actively make questions- that is a good emblem of engagement- which is a radical part of critical thinking. The more the students can question, the more they can learn. Some students get accustomed to memorizing the facts and have never been faced with the outcomes of the poor decisions they made since there is always someone to back them and they had better be challenged, being questioned by their teachers ( Rezaei et al., 2011 ).

The Relationship Between Teachers’ Critical Thinking Ability and Classroom Engagement

Critical thinking has been said to widen one’s horizon because it may shape students’ mindsets and help them take a look at items from a different viewpoint. When one has learned to think critically, they will never accept the status quo easily, he will welcome the opposing ideas and will evaluate the arguments. In the EFL context, when a learner has the capability to think critically, or he has been taught to think critically, he always looks for reasons learning new materials and in this respect, his curiosity allows him to learn everything in depth and challenge his schemata to make a link between the newly learned ideas and the ones he has already known. Critical thinking is not a term that can be utilized just for the specific type of people; it can be taught and practiced to be enhanced. The way ideas can be generated and the way comparisons can be made is highly relevant to what has been called critical thinking. Different items can be conceptualized in different ways when we look at them through the lens of critical thinking; therefore, it can have a positive effect on students’ mindsets and the way they live. From an educational point of view, the decisions that have been made by the students, the solutions that have been put forward to tackle a problem when it comes to a learning context, and the way through which their process of learning is ameliorated are all impacted by teachers’ critical thinking. When teachers think critically and they strive to see different skills from a different point of view, it is where students’ sense of curiosity is tickled and their imagination is stretched so as to think of things in a various way.

Implications and Further Suggestions for Research

Critical thinking is believed to have an enormous effect on students’ classroom engagement. As mentioned above, according to Dewey (1933) , the more the students practice thinking critically, the more successful they are in terms of academic achievements because they can decide more rationally, and their problems can be addressed more sensibly. Attention should be paid that this study is of great significance for those people who are engaged in the learning process including those devising curriculums, develop materials, teachers, and learners. Critical thinking is a skill that should be developed in learners so that they would compare and contrast ideas, and as a result, decide wisely and accomplish what they have planned for. Accordingly, opportunities must be provided by the educators to provide a learning environment in which autonomous learning, active engagement, reflection on learners’ learning process, and L2 advancement are emphasized, for example, task-based activities ( Han and Wang, 2021 ).

Additionally, further studies can be done to find more about the variables in this study.

With regard to various age groups, the understanding of critical thinking might be different. Teenagers are said to start thinking critically and hypothetically; however, undoubtedly there is a big difference between what can be perceived about critical thinking by teenagers and adolescents in the educational contexts. Consequently, how different levels of critical thinking can be conceptualized in the learning context is one of the studies that can be conducted in the future. Secondly, teachers’ success and well-being are also tremendously affected by the way they think. Therefore, from this point of view, a study can be conducted in the future so as to find the correlation between teachers’ critical thinking and other aspects of their lives. The reason why this study should be carried out is that considering the L2 environment, students’ way of thinking is impacted by how they are treated by their teachers. Teachers are supposed to equip students with techniques through which the learning process will be facilitated and students’ creativity will be boosted, therefore, it is what helps them to be critical thinkers both in the classroom context and out of it. Another line of research that is worth being done is that diverse activities that can enhance learners’ ability of critical thinking should be categorized based on learners’ characters. In a modern educational world where individual differences are emphasized, classroom activities should be classified, regarding the learning differences of the learners. Therefore, according to Birjandi and Bagherkazemi (2010) ; Vdovina and Gaibisso (2013) , and Li and Liu (2021) , teachers’ critical thinking ability play a vital role in how students are engaged in the class.

Author Contributions

The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.

This review was supported by the Social Science Foundation of Hebei Province of China “Testing and Research on Critical Thinking Ability of Undergraduates in Hebei Province under the Background of ‘Belt and Road’ Education Action” (Project Number: HB20YY017).

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Bailin, S., Case, R., Coombs, J. R., and Daniels, L. B. (1999). Conceptualizing critical thinking. J. Curric. Stud. 31, 285–302. doi: 10.1080/002202799183133

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Birjandi, P., and Bagherkazemi, M. (2010). The relationship between Iranian EFL teachers’ critical thinking ability and their professional success. Engl. Lang. Teach. 3, 135–145. doi: 10.5539/elt.v3n2p135

Chance, P. (1986). Thinking in the Classroom: A Survey of Programs. New York, NY: Teachers college press.

Google Scholar

Davidson, B. (1998). A case for critical thinking in the English language classroom. TESOL Q. 32, 119–123. doi: 10.2307/3587906

Delmastro, A. L., and Balada, E. (2012). Modelo y estrategias para la promoción del pensamiento crítico en el aula de lenguas extranjeras. Synergies Venezuela 7, 25–37.

Derakhshan, A., Kruk, M., Mehdizadeh, M., and Pawlak, M. (2021). Boredom in online classes in the Iranian EFL context: sources and solutions. System 101:102556. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2021.102556

Dewey, J. (1933). How we Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Educational Process. Boston, MA: D.C. Heath and company in English, 301.

Dörnyei, Z. (2019). Towards a better understanding of the L2 learning experience, the Cinderella of the L2 motivational self system. Stud. Sec. Lang. Learn. Teach. 9, 19–30. doi: 10.14746/ssllt.2019.9.1.2

Elder, L., and Paul, R. (2004). Critical thinking. and the art of close reading, part IV. J. Dev. Educ. 28, 36–37.

Facione, P. A. (2011). Critical thinking: what it is and why it counts. Insight Asses. 2007, 1–23.

Finn, J. D., and Zimmer, K. S. (2012). “Student engagement: what is it? Why does it matter?,” in Handbook of Research on Student Engagement , eds S. L. Christenson, A. L. Reschly, and C. Wylie (Boston, MA: Springer), 97–131. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_5

Han, Y., and Wang, Y. (2021). Investigating the correlation among Chinese EFL Teachers’ self-efficacy, reflection, and work engagement. Front. Psychol. 12:763234. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.763234

Harper, S. R., and Quaye, S. J. (2009). “Beyond sameness, with engagement and outcomes for all: an introduction,” in Student Engagement in Higher Education , eds S. R. Harper and S. J. Quaye (New York, NY: Routledge), 1–15. doi: 10.1515/9781501754586-003

Hiver, P., Al-Hoorie, A. H., Vitta, J. P., and Wu, J. (2021). Engagement in language learning: a systematic review of 20 years of research methods and definitions. Lang. Teach. Res. doi: 10.1177/13621688211001289

Jang, H., Reeve, J., and Deci, E. L. (2010). Engaging students in learning activities: it is not autonomy support or structure but autonomy support and structure. J. Educ. Psychol. 102, 588–600. doi: 10.1037/a0019682

Li, X., and Liu, J. (2021). Mapping the taxonomy of critical thinking ability in EFL. Think. Skills Creat. 41:100880. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100880

Li, Z. (2021). Critical thinking cultivation in Chinese learning classes for International students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Think. Skills Creat. 40:100845. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100845

Liaw, M. L. (2007). Content-based reading and writing for critical thinking skills in an EFL context. Engl. Teach. Learn. 31, 45–87. doi: 10.6330/ETL.2007.31.2.02

Marin, M. A., and Pava, L. (2017). Conceptions of critical thinking from university EFL teachers. Engl. Lang. Teach. 10, 78–88. doi: 10.5539/elt.v10n7p78

Meyers, C. (1986). Teaching Students to Think Critically. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Inc.

Paul, R., and Elder, L. (2007). The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts & Tools. Tomales, CA: Foundation for Critical Thinking.

Rezaei, S., Derakhshan, A., and Bagherkazemi, M. (2011). Critical thinking in language education. J. Lang. Teach. Res. 2, 769–777. doi: 10.4304/jltr.2.4.769-777

Shirkhani, S., and Fahim, M. (2011). Enhancing critical thinking in foreign language learners. Proc. Soc. Behav. Sci. 29, 111–115. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.214

Skinner, E. (2016). “Engagement and disaffection as central to processes of motivational resilience and development,” in Handbook of Motivation at School , eds K. R. Wentzel and D. B. Miele (New York, NY: Routledge), 145–168. doi: 10.4324/9781315773384

Vdovina, E., and Gaibisso, L. (2013). Developing critical thinking in the English Language classroom: a lesson plan. ELTA J. 1, 54–68.

Wang, Y. L., and Guan, H. F. (2020). Exploring demotivation factors of Chinese learners of English as a foreign language based on positive psychology. Rev. Argent. Clin. Psicol. 29, 851–861. doi: 10.24205/03276716.2020.116

Wang, Y. L., and Derakhshan, A. (2021). Book review on “Professional development of CLIL teachers. Int. J. Appl. Linguist. 1–4. doi: 10.1111/ijal.12353

Keywords : critical thinking, classroom engagement, foreign language learning, EFL classroom, EFT teacher

Citation: Yan Z (2021) English as a Foreign Language Teachers’ Critical Thinking Ability and L2 Students’ Classroom Engagement. Front. Psychol. 12:773138. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.773138

Received: 09 September 2021; Accepted: 19 October 2021; Published: 12 November 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Yan. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Ziguang Yan, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

elttguide.com

• Premium Content
• Publications
• Lesson Plans

40 Activities For Developing Critical Thinking in EFL Classes

In this article, I’m going to tackle critical thinking; what it is, what it involves, and some practical activities to develop it in EFL classes.

Critical thinking is one of the main purposes of education. Teachers should prepare their students to think critically from the first day of school. Critical thinking helps students to lead successful, fulfilling lives and become engaged citizens.

What Is Meant By Critical Thinking?

In today’s world, critical thinking is:

• The ability to think about one’s thinking to recognize and improve it.
• The process of applying, analyzing, constructing and evaluating information.
• Making reasoned judgments using certain criteria to judge the quality of something.

What Critical Thinking Involves?

• Asking questions,
• Defining a problem,
• Examining evidence,
• Analyzing assumptions and biases,
• Avoiding emotional reasoning,
• Avoiding oversimplification,
• Considering all interpretations,
• Using higher level thinking skills; analyzing, evaluating and
• Reaching creative solutions for problems.

Why Teach Critical Thinking?

Teachers should focus mainly to develop their students’ critical thinking to help them:  

• Be active receptors of the massive information that they receive nowadays.
• Solve the complex problems that they face every day.
• Make sound decisions about personal and civic affairs.

The Main Teaching Strategies To Develop Critical Thinking

• Using ongoing classroom assessment.
• Putting students in group learning situations to get continuous support and feedback from other students.
• Presenting case studies to the class without a conclusion and using discussion and debate methods.
• Using critical questions.
• Using dialogues written or oral and encouraging students to analyze them.
• Using comparisons to show the pros and cons of two things.

Example #1 of a Critical Thinking Activity

Using debates

Letter x Email

Broom x Vacuum cleaner

Telephone (landline) x Cell phone

Oven x Microwave

Sponge and soap x Dishwasher

Candle x Bulb

Book x Kindle

1. Ask the class who, in their own opinion, wins and why?

2. Ask students to pretend to be the item that they choose, try to list its advantages, and debate them with the other student.

3. Ask students to act out what they prepared in front of the class.

4.  Ask the class to listen and take notes.

Example #2 of a Critical Thinking Activity

Using short stories

Ask students to read the following short story and answer the questions below:

Just before Christmas my father took me skiing at Mount Baker. He’d had to fight for the privilege of my company, because my mother was still angry with him for sneaking me into a nightclub during his last visit, to see Thelonious Monk.

• Write an introduction to this short story.
• Write the second paragraph.
• Do you think they stayed up all night in the nightclub? What did they do?
• What do you think about the father?
• Do you think the family enjoyed Christmas?
• If you were the mother, would you be angry?
• What did you learn from the story?
• Can you guess the best/worst case scenario of how the story will end?
• Why did the father take the kid to the nightclub?
• Do you think the mother wanted to go to the nightclub?
• Do you like such a father?
• Do you think the dad lives with the family?
• What are the feelings of the kid?
• Do you think the kid has siblings?
• Did the kid solve the problem with his mother?
• What would you do if you were in his/her shoes?
• How old is he or she?
• Where do they live? Country or town?
• Do you think the kid is good at school?
• Why did the father sneak the kid into the nightclub?
• Do you think the mother was right when she got angry?
• What do you think of the dad?
• Should the kid apologize to the mother and how?
• Does the father accompany his kid often or rarely?
• What do you think happened before Christmas?
• Why did the father not take the mother along? …. etc.

When asking students such critical thinking questions, the teacher should:

• Keep the discussion focused.
• Keep the discussion reasonable.
• Stimulate the discussion with more probing questions.
• Summarize periodically what has and what has not been dealt with or resolved.
• Engage as many students as possible in the discussion.

More Examples of Activities For Developing Critical Thinking in EFL Classes

3. Write a title on the board, divide the students into groups, and they sit together and make a story (each group will have a different story and then share it with the whole class).

4. Use a short story, ask students about their opinions of the characters, then discuss with the whole class whether they agree or disagree asking why?

5. Draw objects and ask them about them (compare and contrast).

6. Write an essay on a certain topic or respond to an email.

7. Suggest a suitable title for a story.

8. Transfer information to others

9. Brainstorm ideas using a mind map.

10. Summarize a text and give opinions.

11. Ask what-if questions (what if you were Oliver twist/Cinderella).

12. Ask students to complete a sentence.

13. Ask about the moral of a story.

14. Give students a problem related to their environment and ask them to do research about it and give some creative solutions for it.

15. Ask open-ended questions; questions that have many possible answers (e.g. should we spend more money developing earth or exploring space?). Divide the class into groups, each thinks of answers and then shares them.

16. Give a situation and encourage students (in groups) to analyze, evaluate, and make judgments.

17. Ask students to make an end to a story.

18. Ask students to criticize a certain situation.

19. List the advantages and disadvantages of a topic.

20. Introduce some situations using (what would you do in the following situation? what if we do not have …., what would happen if …?

21. Ask students: which is different: milk, water, soda, or juice? Why? Which one is better (in pairs and students pick different sides)

22. Imagine you are the president, the mayor, a leader, a doctor etc… What decisions would you take first?

Reading Activities

Let’s brainstorm some ideas of how to promote critical thinking after reading a story, e.g. “Cinderella”.

23. Analyze characters: Do you like “Character”? Why?

24. Use what-if questions: What if Cinderella was ugly?

25. Introduce or remove a character then ask for the impact on the storyline.

26. Ask for another ending for the story.

27. Ask for their thoughts about what’s after the ending.

28. Change the setting and ask for the results.

29. Ask students to watch the movie after reading the story and then compare the characters and the storyline!

Speaking activities

30. Ask students to look at a certain picture and describe their feelings about it.

31. Ask students to compare things.

32. Introduce a problem and ask students to give as many solutions as possible for it.

33. Ask students to gather information from conflicting resources.

34. Ask controversial questions.

35. Encourage Role Plays.

36. Ask students about their priority: education/health/entertainment and why?

Listening activities

37. Prediction.

38. Making inferences.

39. Drawing conclusions.

40. Differentiating between facts and opinions.

Writing Activities

41. Writing blurbs to pictures or ads … etc.

42. Writing Commentaries.

43. Responding to emails, letters or SMS.

For setting students up for success in critical thinking activities teachers need to:

• Brainstorm enough information before asking students to carry out a certain task.
• Encourage them to participate.
• Provide them with help and guidance (when needed).
• Assure them that there are no “wrong answers”.
• Accept all answers and points of view.
• Appreciate their efforts.
• Praise their trials.
• Teach them critical thinking skills!

Here are some critical thinking skills that students need to learn:

• Thinking outside the box.
• Asking questions and then questioning answers.
• Analyzing the reading or the listening text.
• Logically addressing an issue.
• Supporting their stance with evidence.
• Respectfully refuting others’ opinions.
• Evaluating the truth of a claim or argument.

Adapted from U.S. Department of State English Language Programs – Samar Aal

Thanks for Reading

For more in-depth content on english language teaching, (now open) subscribe to access my elt premium content, looking to get tefl certified your search is over, start with ita now.

The ELT training that you will receive at ITA is invaluable that you will be well prepared as an EFL/ESL teacher.

I’m sure you will be amazed by their:

• Countless TEFL courses,
• Course structure,
• Alumni community,   
• High number of practicum hours,
• Customer service,
• Lifetime TEFL job assistance,
• Reviews and credentials.

Start now with ITA  to make a difference in your TEFL journey teaching online or abroad.

If you like this article, share it on:

• Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Pinterest (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window)
• Pingback: Recognize The Latest 5 Trends In Teaching Reading - elttguide.com

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

You must be logged in to post a comment.

Subscribe to My Newsletter

Affiliate disclosure.

This website might have affiliate links, and if you buy something by clicking on them, the website owner could earn some money. To learn more, read the full disclosure.

Study TEFL/TESOL Online

Get 15% Discount

Visit My Video Channel

Articles Categories

• Back To School
• Brain-based ELT
• Classroom Management
• CLT Communicative Language Teaching
• Correcting Mistakes
• Develop Students' Speaking Skills
• Developing Critical Thinking
• Developing Life Skills
• ELT Snippets
• ELTT Questions & Answers
• For IELTS Exam
• Guest Posts
• Lanaguage Teaching Approaches
• Learn English
• Learning How to Learn
• Lesson Planning
• Low Achiever Students
• Online Courses
• Printables Library
• Professional Development
• Talk on Supervision
• Teach Conversations
• Teach Grammar
• Teach Language Functions
• Teach Listening Activities
• Teach Pronunciation
• Teach Reading
• Teach Vocabulary
• Teach Writing
• Teacher Wellness
• Teaching Aids
• TEFL Essential Skills
• TEFL Interview
• TEFL to Young Learners
• Testing and Assessment
• The ELT Insider
• Uncategorized
• Using Technology in EFL Classes

Open Praxis

• Download PDF (English) XML (English)
• Alt. Display

Research articles

Transformative learning: flipped classroom and its impact on writing skill and critical thinking level.

• Muhammet Furkan Alpat
• Emrah Görgülü

The study sought to ascertain if critical thinking instruction delivered via the Flipped Classroom may improve students’ EFL writing skills. In addition to determining if the present instructional model influences students’ views of critical thinking and attitudes toward Flipped Learning integration, another goal is to determine whether students’ attitudes about Flipped Learning integration change. Students at the School of Languages at the upper-intermediate level took part in a reading and writing course to enhance their writing abilities. It was an experimental study with two groups consisting of an experimental group and a control group that each got training from the researcher for six weeks, and each group included 15 students. A variety of qualitative and quantitative data collection tools were used for this study, with the California critical thinking level inventory survey used in the first phase of the study, and critical thinking interviews used in the latter stage of the flipping classroom survey. Analyzing students’ responses to the California Critical Thinking Level Inventory found that the experimental group outperformed the control group, indicating a substantial boost in critical thinking abilities in those who took part in the experiment. The findings of the Flipped Classroom questionnaire show that students have a significant influence on the new teaching model in terms of their opinions regarding it.

• blended learning
• flipped classroom
• critical thinking
• teachability of critical thinking
• writing skill
• instructional model
• flexible learning
• flipped writing course
• flipped learning

Introduction

In contemporary society, critical thinking skills are highly valued, and educational programs are formulated to foster these skills in students ( Domu et al., 2023 ). This is because possessing critical thinking skills equips students to acquire new knowledge and challenge their beliefs ( Anderson & Rivera Vargas, 2020 ). Critical thinking entails thinking at a high level ( Gündoğdu, 2009 ), mastery of one’s thought system ( Paul et al., 1997 ), and logical and rational thinking ( Facione et al., 2000 ). Critical thinking is a learnable skill that can be taught in conjunction with other thinking skills ( Liu, 2023 ). Educators must possess the necessary competencies to teach critical thinking to students, and teaching critical thinking enables students to perceive themselves and their surroundings more effectively ( Bozkurt et.al., 2023 ).

To develop critical thinking skills, enriched educational environments and activities that do not restrict learners’ skill and ability development should be created ( Sharma et al., 2023 ). Since 2005, educational programs in Turkey have been founded on the constructivist philosophy, which considers critical thinking skills a fundamental skill. As a result, there has been a significant increase in studies on critical thinking skills. Typically, studies on teaching critical thinking combine it with communicative skills like writing. Writing is a critical skill in language teaching, as it is one of the productive skills in language learning, and should be emphasized in language classes ( Matsuda & De Pew, 2002 ; Silva & Brice, 2004 ). Students must improve their writing skills to express their thoughts and feelings in written form and learn how to write the language correctly.

Additionally, negative attitudes towards writing are closely associated with writing classes in EFL (English as a Foreign Language) education, leading to demotivated learners. To address this issue, EFL writing teachers should integrate technology into the classroom. Digital natives, who have grown up with digital technology, have almost limitless access to technological devices such as smartphones, laptops, and tablet PCs. Integrating these devices into learning settings can potentially yield better results in terms of language learning and production, and help develop more positive attitudes towards writing.

Teachers are expected to possess critical thinking skills as they play a pivotal role in fostering critical thinking among their students ( Ten Dam & Volman, 2004 ; Kaye & Ragusa, 1998 ; Williams, 2005 ). Therefore, teaching critical thinking should be accorded high priority in language education. To this end, various instructional strategies have been examined. With the advent of technological innovations, the integration of critical thinking skills in teaching has become more seamless. The Flipped Classroom, a pedagogical approach that involves delivering instructional content, often online, outside of the classroom, and transferring activities traditionally accepted as homework into the classroom, has emerged as an effective instructional strategy to inspire critical thinking skills in the classroom ( Cho et al., 2021 ). While many studies have examined the effectiveness of the Flipped Classroom approach in L1 settings, limited research has focused on its potential to develop critical thinking skills among L2 learners. Thus, this study aims to address this research gap by investigating the impact of Flipped Classroom instruction on the critical thinking and L2 writing performance of Turkish EFL learners and their perception of critical thinking and Flipped Classroom integration.

The evolution of blended learning over time signifies that educational instruction will undergo further innovations ( Bozkurt, 2022 ). Graham’s ( 2006 ) research is concerned with four communication metrics in face-to-face and distributed settings. Distributed environments have begun to outperform traditional face-to-face learning environments in terms of time and convenience. Advancements in technology have enabled distributed environments to provide synchronous instruction. The convergence of conventional face-to-face and distributed learning environments has gained increasing traction and is likely to persist in the future.

The historical development of blended learning underscores its growing popularity as a pedagogical strategy that is poised to continuously transform the landscape of educational instruction ( Domu et al., 2023 ). Constructivism, a prominent theoretical framework of learning, posits that individuals build new knowledge by actively engaging with and connecting pre-existing ideas and experiences ( Ali et al., 2019 ). In this vein, blended learning has been shown to support both cognitive and social constructivism, thereby enhancing student engagement and achievement, while providing a flexible and accessible learning environment ( Campillo-Ferrer & Miralles-Martínez, 2021 ).

The investigation of blended learning’s effectiveness in enhancing writing skills is an expanding but restricted field. It was demonstrated that blended learning was 25% more convenient and flexible than traditional teaching in a writing composition course by Wadoups, Hatch, and Butterworth ( 2003 ), comparing traditional and blended learning environments. Ferriman ( 2013 ) tested the effectiveness of blended learning on undergraduate academic essay writing by involving 30 students. However, no statistically significant differences were observed when using an online bulletin board in combination with face-to-face communication for references used, word count, and essay score. However, the study was appropriate for larger classes. According to Arani ( 2012 ), internet tools and blogs which assist with language learning can greatly enhance writing skills. Using a survey of intermediate-level EFL students, Bahce and Taslac’s ( 2009 ) were able to examine the perceptions of students regarding blended writing courses, and they found that these courses offered meaningful writing opportunities, as well as promoted positive attitudes towards the writing process. An English writing class incorporating Facebook and peer assessment achieved positive results, according to Shih ( 2011 ).

The available literature regarding blended learning’s effectiveness in enhancing students’ writing skills is still limited, yet steadily expanding. Notably, Waddoups, Hatch, and Butterwoth ( 2003 ) conducted a comparison between traditional and blended learning environments in a writing composition course, and the findings indicated that blended learning yielded a 25% decrease in instructor time while providing more flexibility and convenience than traditional methods. Similarly, Ferriman ( 2013 ) conducted an experimental study on thirty students to examine the effects of blended learning on academic essay writing, concluding that the use of an online bulletin board in addition to face-to-face communication did not bear a significant statistical impact on essay scores, word count, or the number of references used. Nevertheless, it was deemed suitable for larger class sizes. Meanwhile, Arani ( 2012 ) suggests that internet tools and blog-assisted language learning exercises have immense potential for augmenting writing skills. Bahce and Taslacı ( 2009 ) analyzed intermediate-level EFL students’ perspectives on blended writing classes and reported that they provide meaningful writing opportunities and promote positive viewpoints regarding writing. Lastly, Shih ( 2011 ) conducted research on the integration of Facebook and peer assessment in a college English writing class, ultimately uncovering positive outcomes. In summary, blended learning provides authentic learning experiences, flexibility, and convenience ( Ng. et. al., 2013 ). Studies have demonstrated that blended learning has the potential to enhance writing skills.

Flipped learning is a contemporary educational strategy that redefines the traditional roles of instructors and learners, both inside and outside the classroom, to optimize the utilization of in-class time ( Anderson, 2012 ). Under this pedagogical approach, students are expected to independently and at their own pace view pre-recorded lectures or review notes provided by the instructor, who assumes a facilitator or director role. Students engage in collaborative or individualized dynamic learning activities, with the primary responsibility of the teacher being to guide and offer feedback on students’ progress ( Bergman & Sams, 2012 ). The conventional in-class presentation or lecture becomes an assignment that is accomplished before the class, hence the name Flipped Learning. This model effectively transforms traditional homework into classwork, providing students with immediate feedback and clarification while they apply newly acquired knowledge ( Anderson, 2012 ).

The origins of flipped learning can be traced back to 2007 when chemistry teachers, Jonathon Bergmann and Aaron Sams, pioneered the use of screen-casting to compensate for missed lessons by students ( Bergmann & Sams, 2012 ). They discovered that in the flipped setting, teachers were able to cover more material, student exam scores were the same or higher, and students quickly adapted to the new setting with a positive attitude.

Critical thinking is a cognitive process that traces its roots back to the ancient philosopher Socrates, who famously sought to uncover the truth through questioning. Over the centuries, this concept has evolved with the contributions of esteemed scholars such as Plato, Aristotle, and John Dewey, who defined it as reflective thinking. At its core, critical thinking involves a systematic approach to thought, a willingness to challenge assumptions, empathy, open-mindedness, and the courage to evaluate facts with intellectual integrity. It necessitates the use of intellectual standards to bring structure to thinking, awareness of the components of rational thought, and continuous review and evaluation of the thinking process.

Given its critical importance across all fields of education, the teaching of critical thinking has garnered much attention. However, successful instruction of this fundamental skill can only be realized when educators possess a deep understanding of the concept. Consequently, measuring different dimensions of critical thinking attitudes on various age groups has been central to assessment strategies. To this end, the California Critical Thinking Dispositions Inventory is the most commonly used measurement tool.

The literature on the teachability of critical thinking is diverse and complex. Edward D’angelo, ( 1970 ) and Mehta & Al-Mahrooqi, ( 2014 ) both suggest that critical thinking can be taught, with Mehta emphasizing the importance of continuous practice and application. However, Behar-Horenstein & Niu, ( 2011 ) and Mulnix, ( 2012 ) caution that the effectiveness of teaching methods can vary, and that there is disagreement over what critical thinking actually is. Tilbury et al., ( 2010 ) and Crenshaw et al., ( 2011 ) provide specific strategies for teaching critical thinking in social work and post-secondary education, respectively. Lyle, ( 1958 ) and Case & Wright, ( 1997 ) highlight the need for further research and the challenges of implementing critical thinking in the classroom.

In conclusion, critical thinking is a vital skill that demands a systematic approach, intellectual standards, and critical evaluation of thought processes. Although teaching critical thinking remains a daunting challenge, it is an indispensable aspect of modern education. A variety of measurement tools can assess critical thinking attitudes on different age groups, and recent research supports the effectiveness of supported web environments in promoting critical thinking.

Methodology

Research model.

This study adopted a pretest-posttest quasi-experimental mixed methods design. In this research, both quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analyzed to explore various dimensions of the research topic. The California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory ( Facione et al., 2000 ), adapted to Turkish by Kökdemir ( 2003 ), PTs’ argumentative essays, and the closed-ended items of the Flipped Classroom Opinion Survey developed by Ekmekci ( 2017 ) were employed as sources of quantitative data. The qualitative data were gathered through semi-structured interview questions. The research questions are listed below;

• Is there a major change concerning the Turkish EFL learners who take traditional instruction and those who receive critical thinking instruction which is supported with Flipped Classroom about their critical thinking levels?
• Is there a significant difference between the Turkish EFL learners who receive traditional instruction and those who receive Flipped Classroom-supported critical thinking instruction regarding L2 writing performance levels?
• Will there be an alteration in the EFL students’ perception of critical thinking at the end of the study?
• What do the EFL students think about the instruction which is supported with the Flipped Classroom?

Data Collection Tools

The California Critical Thinking Disposition Scale comprises of six sub-dimensions and 51 items that are rated on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 6. The rating scale ranges from “totally disagree” to “totally agree.” Each sub-dimension of the scale is scored between 10–29 for low, 30–39 for moderate, 40–49 for high, and 50–60 for excellent scores. Overall, scores between 70–209 are considered low, 210–279 medium, and 280–420 higher ( Facione et al., 2000 ). The Turkish version of the CCTDI-T, translated by Kökdemir ( 2003 ), includes categories such as Truth-Seeking, Open-Mindedness, Analyticity, Systematicity, Self-Confidence, and Inquisitiveness.

After the study, the experimental group participants were given the Flipped Writing Class Attitude Questionnaire, which employed a 5-point Likert-type response format, to gather their views on the effectiveness of Flipped Learning in supporting critical thinking instruction. The questionnaire is composed of 25 items and the response options range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

To gather qualitative data, focus group interviews were conducted at the start and end of the study. The experimental group participants were asked to provide their descriptions of critical thinking, expound on the traits of a critical thinker, and share their opinions on the teachability of critical thinking. During the post-focus group discussions, participants were provided with information regarding their perceptions of flipped learning-supported instruction before and after the interviews.

At the end of the term, both the experimental and control groups were tasked to produce an argumentative essay on the topic of capital punishment as part of the course requirements. The aim was to investigate whether there existed a noticeable distinction between the writing performance of participants who received conventional learning and those who received critical thinking instruction with the assistance of flipped learning. Dişli’s ( 2012 ) argumentative paragraph rubric was employed for evaluation purposes.

Study Group

The present study was carried out in an English language preparatory program consisting of six upper-intermediate level groups. Random selection was used to choose two classes for the study, resulting in a sample of 30 participants whose ages ranged from 17 to 19 years old. Of these participants, 16 were native speakers of Turkish and none had prior experience studying in English-speaking countries. In terms of educational background, 20 participants graduated from Anatolian high schools (83.0%), 5 from regular high schools (4.8%), and 5 from religious vocational high schools (4.8%). The participants had been studying English for six months, beginning at the Elementary level according to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). The Reading and Writing Course was offered to both the experimental group (N = 15: Female = 7; Male = 8) and the control group (N = 15: Female = 9; Male = 6), with instruction provided by the researcher.

Data Analysis

In the pursuit of comprehensively addressing the research questions at hand, not only quantitative but also qualitative methods were judiciously employed to collect data utilizing the instruments previously mentioned. This approach is referred to as a mixed study design and has been acknowledged by scholars such as Lynch ( 1996 ) to be highly effective in ensuring that data are rigorously validated through triangulation of diverse instruments, thereby resulting in a nuanced and well-rounded understanding of the research problems under consideration.

To this end, the quantitative data obtained from the writing scores and the Flipped Writing Class Attitude Questionnaire were analyzed utilizing the widely accepted SPSS 20 (Statistics Package for Social Sciences) data analysis tool, which enabled the generation of insightful findings that shed light on the efficacy of the Flipped Classroom method for teaching writing.

In addition to the utilization of quantitative methods, the present study also adopted qualitative techniques such as categorization, coding, and interpretation to amass data through the designated instruments. The amalgamation of these methods, as postulated by Lynch ( 1996 ), is referred to as a mixed research design, and affirms that triangulating various data sources is instrumental in attaining a thorough understanding of research problems. The semi-structured interview served as a medium for collecting qualitative data and was duly recorded and transcribed by the researchers. Subsequently, the data gathered from the interviewees’ responses were meticulously categorized by the researchers based on their content.

Research Procedures

The study employed a text-only instructional method in the lectures delivered to the control group. The pedagogical goal was to foster critical thinking and effective communication skills, specifically in the realm of argumentative essay writing. To achieve this objective, the topic of capital punishment was selected, and a corresponding syllabus was designed with the inclusion of pertinent articles. These articles were carefully chosen to stimulate multi-dimensional thinking and to encourage students to articulate their views persuasively. Specifically, the articles explored the diverse attitudes towards capital punishment held by distinct groups, including but not limited to victims’ families, human rights activists, wrongfully convicted individuals’ families, and religious functionaries.

The lesson in question pertained to reading and writing for an upper-intermediate group and spanned a period of six weeks. The reading lessons were deliberately centered around the contentious topic of capital punishment, with the aim of fostering critical thinking skills in students. The writing component of the lessons focused specifically on teaching argumentative essay writing. The use of the capital punishment topic was a strategic choice to provoke critical thinking and to facilitate meaningful learning outcomes in the experimental group. Further details regarding the construction process of the Flipped Learning-Supported critical thinking instruction will be explicated in the subsequent section.

In the context of implementing a flipped learning approach, which involves the use of technology to extend learning beyond the classroom setting, a platform that facilitates communication between students and teachers is imperative. For this study, Google Classroom was deemed an appropriate tool for achieving this purpose, allowing for the uploading of instructional videos, assignment submissions, and feedback delivery. The experimental group was first given an overview of the flipped learning approach and was then introduced to Google Classroom, whereby they were instructed to register using a unique code. All participants utilized their university-issued email addresses, passwords, and group codes to access the platform, where the researcher had uploaded the relevant writing and reading lesson videos for easy accessibility by the experimental group.

The experimental group underwent a six-week period of instruction utilizing the Flipped Learning-Supported Critical Thinking methodology, whereas the control group received a text-only educational approach. Despite this variance, both groups were required to compose an argumentative essay on the topic of capital punishment, with a focus on the writing process. Students were instructed to work collaboratively in the classroom setting and independently beyond class time. The syllabus for the six-week instructional period, based on capital punishment, was specifically designed to teach critical thinking skills and to facilitate the development of an effective argumentative essay.

Limitations

The present study had certain limitations, including a restricted number of participants in both the control and experimental groups, a brief duration, and a lack of a pilot study. The institutional policy mandating smaller class sizes led to a reduced number of participants, which may be perceived as disadvantageous to the study’s overall findings. However, this resulted in greater opportunities for students to engage in discourse during lessons and allowed the researcher to provide more personalized attention, ultimately resulting in more effective lessons. The duration of the study was limited due to the modular system employed by the institution, whereby groups were reconstituted based on students’ module exit exam results. While the present study centered on writing, the Flipped Classroom methodology could be adapted to enhance the efficacy of all language skills, both receptive and productive. Additionally, Flipped Classroom approaches could be extended to teach critical thinking in other fields such as social sciences and natural sciences. Finally, this study serves as a springboard for further research into language teaching, including the acquisition of skills such as interpreting, analyzing, synthesizing, evaluating, and reflecting on information.

Findings and Discussions

The results of the cctdi-t scores.

The study’s outset involved an independent sample t-test to establish equivalence between the experimental and control groups based on their pre-CCTDI-T scores. The results demonstrated no significant differences between the two groups regarding their CCTDI-T overall scores and subscales, including inquisitiveness, analyticity, systematicity, open-mindedness, truth-seeking, and self-confidence. Afterward, a post-test was used to evaluate post-CCTDI-T. Table 1.1 shows the variations in critical thinking dispositon levels between the experimental and control groups.

Differences between the groups (N = 20) in terms of their overall CCTDI-T scores.

The findings of the research indicate that the experimental group outperformed the control group, as there was a noticeable enhancement in their critical thinking disposition when compared to the control group. Additionally, the table presented below illustrates the variances between the CCTDI-T sub-scales after the study, with respect to the groups’ critical thinking disposition levels at the conclusion of the investigation.

Findings and Discussion about Flipped Writing Class Attitudes Questionnaire

The experimental group participants were surveyed using a five-factor questionnaire, called the Flipped Writing Class Attitude Questionnaire, to determine their attitudes towards various aspects of flipped learning, including CMS (Course Management System in Google Classroom), video lectures, preparing for exams in a flipped learning environment, and their overall opinions on flipped versus traditional learning. The responses were analyzed using SPSS software through a frequency analysis.

Table 1.2 displays the participants’ perceptions of the efficacy of Google Classroom as a Course Management System. The majority of respondents affirmed that Google Classroom was beneficial for their learning process, with 70% strongly agreeing, 20% agreeing, and only 10% being neutral. Additionally, 60% strongly agreed and 30% agreed that CMS is a crucial part of their learning, with a minority of 10% disagreeing, which could be attributed to temporary internet connectivity issues.

Percentage of students’ attitudes towards course management system (CMS).

sa: strongly agree a: agree n: neutral d: disagree sd: strongly disagree.

Table 1.3 shows that 70% of the participants liked watching video lectures, while 20% were neutral. Additionally, 50% of the experimental group regularly watched the video lectures, and 30% were unsure. Moreover, 90% of the participants found video lectures beneficial. Regarding the quality of the videos, 50% of the students reported that the lectures were not boring, while 20% found them tedious. Varying the content of the videos may alleviate boredom.

Percentage of students’ attitudes towards video lectures.

The table above shows the noteworthy frequency analysis of students’ responses to statements related to flipped learning in the research on the effectiveness of using the flipped classroom for learning writing.

Table 1.4 illustrates that 80% of the students reported an improvement in their writing skills through the use of flipped learning, while 20% were uncertain. The positive results can be attributed to increased motivation levels among students, as 80% felt more motivated to write argumentative essays in the flipped writing class. Additionally, 70% of students reported enjoying writing more after watching video lectures. Furthermore, 90% of students found flipped learning effective in improving writing skills, while 80% found the video lectures helpful for practicing writing in class. The majority of students did not recommend the flipped writing class, indicating satisfaction with the model. While some negative attitudes were reported, they can be improved through minor modifications to the flipped writing class. Overall, the majority of students held positive attitudes towards the flipped writing classroom.

Percentage of students’ attitudes towards learning writing through flipped classroom.

The results of a frequency analysis, which is presented in a table below, were used to statistically study the participants’ attitudes towards both flipped and traditional classes after the research process, given the fundamental importance of their preferences.

According to the data in Table 1.5 , a larger proportion of students (70%) were motivated by videos watched outside of class compared to in-class lectures, while 20% had no preference and 10% disagreed with this statement. This suggests that the flipped writing class was favored by most students over the traditional lecture-based class. To determine students’ preference for traditional classes, three reverse statements were used. The majority of participants (60%) did not favor traditional teacher-led lessons. Results from the other two statements showed that most students found traditional classes less enjoyable and less preferred compared to flipped classes. Overall, the results indicate that the flipped writing class had a significant impact on students’ attitudes towards the new instructional model, as evidenced by the high percentage of students who preferred it.

Percentage of Students’ Attitudes towards Flipped versus Traditional Learning.

The Results of the PTs’ Argumentative Essay Scores

Prior to conducting the study, an analysis was conducted to determine if there was a disparity in writing proficiency between the experimental and control groups. To accomplish this, a pre-test was administered to both groups during the initial week of the fall semester. The results were analyzed using an independent samples t-test in SPSS 20 software, a commonly used statistical program in the field of social sciences.

Based on the results of the pre-test as shown in Table 1.6 , where the significance level is at 0.500 (p > 0.05), it can be deduced that there is no significant difference between the experimental and control groups in terms of their writing proficiency. It is important to note that the mean score of the control group is slightly higher than that of the experimental group.

Comparison of the experimental and control groups’ pre-test results.

Table 1.7 reveals that the post-test scores of the experimental and control groups were considerably different (70.02–57.30), indicating that the students in the experimental group had better writing proficiency than those in the traditional writing class. This suggests that the flipped writing class model is an effective approach for enhancing writing skills. It’s worth mentioning that despite the experimental group’s superior performance, the control group’s writing proficiency also showed improvement.

Comparison of the experimental and control groups’ post-test results.

Qualitative Data Analyses

Focus group discussions.

In line with prior indications, a series of focus group discussions were carried out, both prior to and subsequent to the investigation, involving a randomly assembled cohort comprising five willing participants who belonged to the experimental group. The primary objective of these sessions was to detect any plausible alterations in the initial perceptions of critical thinking held by the participants, as well as to gauge their responses to the intervention.

a) Definition of Critical Thinking  

One of the key findings from the pre-focus group interviews is that PTs face challenges in providing a clear definition of critical thinking. While the definitions they offer lack clarity, they often mention the essential components of critical thinking. These include being receptive to diverse opinions, demonstrating tolerance for different or opposing views, and maintaining impartiality.

Before the study:

• Critical thinking is highly important and should be constructive rather than destructive.
• Being open-minded and respecting others’ viewpoints is crucial for critical thinking.

However, upon analyzing the interviews conducted after the focus groups, it became evident that the PTs were able to articulate a more precise understanding of critical thinking. Whereas their interviews before the focus groups only touched upon different aspects of the concept, they were now able to provide a comprehensive explanation of critical thinking.

After the study:

• Critical thinking entails objectively evaluating multiple perspectives and subsequently formulating one’s own views.
• We can refer to it as a process of forming opinions by synthesizing two different ideas to arrive at a third while maintaining an open-minded and well-founded approach.

What Are the Features of an Ideal Critical Thinker?

The PTs conducted pre- and post-group interviews to define the characteristics of an ideal critical thinker. Consistent results were found by emphasizing traits such as objectivity, open-mindedness, tolerance, and lack of prejudice. Quotations from interviews showcased the importance of respect, open-mindedness, and considering facts when forming opinions. Post-group interviews focused on additional qualities needed for a first-time critical thinker, including knowledge, curiosity, and skepticism. They highlighted the significance of having adequate background information to defend or reconsider one’s own stance and to support or challenge others’ claims. Curiosity was deemed crucial for gaining multiple perspectives on a subject, while a curious personality was considered a fundamental condition for critical thinking. Skepticism played a role in both self-questioning and questioning the opinions of others. Critical thinkers were expected to critically assess their own ideas, and questioning existing ideas, both opposing and supportive, was seen as a characteristic of a true critical thinker. Overall, the post interviews emphasized the importance of being well-informed, curious, and willing to question one’s own ideas and the ideas of others to cultivate effective critical thinking skills.

b) Is Critical Thinking Teachable?  

The opinions of PTs on the teachability of critical thinking did not show significant differences before and after group interviews. While most respondents agreed that critical thinking could be taught, a few expressed opposing views. PTs believed that critical thinking emerges when two conditions are met: encouraging critical thinking characteristics in the environment and providing opportunities to use those characteristics. They emphasized the importance of a tolerant environment where individuals can express their ideas and develop respect for others’ views. The timing of teaching critical thinking was considered crucial, with the pre-school and primary school years seen as the most appropriate. However, in the post-group interviews, PTs expressed that critical thinking could also be taught during university years or later in life. Some PTs believed that critical thinking is innate and not teachable, attributing it to hereditary factors. Mental capacity was identified as a determining factor in the level of learnability of critical thinking. Some PTs became more positive about its teachability based on their project experience. The teacher factor was mentioned in post-group interviews, with teachers seen as both obstacles and facilitators to teaching critical thinking. The Flipped Classroom was generally considered a useful learning tool, with benefits including practicality, collaboration, active learning, English proficiency improvement, critical judgment skills, and research skills. However, one participant did not view it as an effective learning tool.

The Relationship between the Flipped Classroom and Critical Thinking

In post-group interviews, all PTs acknowledged that the use of the Flipped Classroom improved their critical thinking. They emphasized that access to multiple resources and different perspectives facilitated more critical thinking. They mentioned that the Flipped Classroom allowed them to review topics from various angles before writing articles, understand different opinions, empathize with different perspectives, become more tolerant, and appreciate diverse stances. PTs highlighted the importance of objectivity in critical thinking and praised the Flipped Classroom as an effective tool for accessing and exploring information from various sources, including external websites.

The Relationship between the Flipped Classroom and L2 Writing Performance

In the post-group interviews, PTs were asked if using the Flipped Classroom improved their L2 (second language) writing performance. All respondents answered positively, highlighting the advantage of accessing course materials, slides, and websites. They mentioned visiting websites listed in Google Classroom and learning how to write discussion articles, as well as reviewing important points specified by the teacher through lesson materials and slides. PTs expressed that the Flipped Classroom significantly contributed to the development of their English writing skills.

Conclusion and Suggestions

This research is aimed at developing a contemporary teaching approach for writing classes in an EFL setting that can facilitate the process of teaching writing and render it more meaningful for students. Simply integrating technology into education is insufficient; there must be a valid reason for preferring technology to traditional education. Thus, it was postulated that technology could promote critical thinking skills among students. To test this hypothesis, the Flipped Classroom approach was combined with critical thinking education in a reading and writing course.

During the Spring semester of the 2018–2019 academic year, upper-intermediate level students in the School of Languages were enrolled in the reading and writing course. The Flipped Classroom approach was employed as a new methodology, with the objective of increasing students’ level of critical thinking. The study was conducted as an experiment, with two groups randomly selected as experimental and control groups, each comprising 15 students. The aim of the course was to teach students the argumentative essay type and present different types of articles to them. The selected topics on the issue of capital punishment were intended to stimulate critical thinking.

Although both experimental and control groups covered the same topics, there were differences in the delivery of instruction. The control group received instruction exclusively in a classroom setting, without the guidance provided by the Flipped Classroom approach through Google Classroom and Google Document. In contrast, the experimental group had already studied the argumentative essay through videos and tasks and had examined it on their own at home. This independent study component allowed students to engage with the material at their own pace, ensuring a deeper understanding of the content. During the study, the control group participants read specific articles on the topic and answered comprehension or discussion questions led by the researcher, while the participants in the experimental group watched the article summary to activate their knowledge, enabling detailed discussion. Through this approach, various discussion activities were conducted to promote critical thinking skills, and students were required to answer not only comprehension questions but also formulate inferences and make decisions.

Both quantitative and qualitative data collection instruments were used in the research, including the California Critical Thinking Level Inventory survey and the Flipped Classroom questionnaire for quantitative data, and interviews for critical thinking and the Flipped Classroom for qualitative data. The analysis of students’ responses to the California Critical Thinking Level Inventory survey revealed that the experimental group outperformed the control group, indicating a significant improvement in the critical thinking skills of the experimental group. The findings of the Flipped Classroom questionnaire suggested that the Flipped Classroom approach had a notable impact on students’ attitudes towards the new instructional model, with a high percentage of students preferring the flipped class.

As inferred from the preceding part, the utilization of the Flipped Classroom approach to teach critical thinking concurrently with a writing course yielded substantial dividends for both instructors and pupils alike. Firstly, the integration of technology into the curriculum must be strategic and purposeful to address specific pedagogical needs effectively. It is incumbent upon educational institutions to establish a comprehensive policy that integrates technological tools into their curricula, for doing so will enable educators to navigate pedagogical challenges with greater facility. The technological infrastructure within the classroom as well as the electronic devices that pupils utilize outside of it must be optimized to maximize their efficacy. Secondly, it is of paramount importance that the Flipped Classroom paradigm empowers students to become more autonomous learners and enriches their class time with more meaningful activities. This autonomy helps foster a sense of responsibility and ownership over their learning process. It is noteworthy, however, that videos, as a learning tool, do not by themselves obviate the need for traditional pedagogy; rather, technology must be integrated into the curriculum with a clear rationale to enhance the quality of instruction. Thirdly, teachers must be conversant with the use of Course Management Systems such as Moodle, Google Classroom, or Canvas and be equipped with the requisite skills to edit and design video lectures. The implementation of Flipped Classroom should strive to elevate the standard of instruction, as most of the learning transpires outside of class. To this end, the curriculum should incorporate activities aligned with the higher-order thinking skills prescribed in Bloom’s Taxonomy, as was exemplified in this study. Lastly, to ensure optimal outcomes, video lessons ought to be pre-recorded, allowing instructors to refine and improve the activities they will use in class. This refinement process is crucial for maintaining high-quality instructional materials that effectively support student learning.

Data Accessibility Statement

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Ethics and Consent

All the data gathered and presented in the study were obtained with the consent and approval of the participants involved. A learning agreement form was obtained that outlines the participants’ duties and responsibilities concerning the course and the use of any resulting data. The participants consented to make all recorded videos, outputs, and comments related to the course publicly accessible in Google Classroom.

Acknowledgements

This study is the summarized version of the MA dissertation titled “The Effect of Flipped Learning-supported Critical Thinking Instruction on the Critical Disposition and L2 Writing Skill”.

Funding Information

A grant for this research was not received from any government, commercial, or not for-profit funding agency.

Competing Interests

The authors have no competing interests to declare.

Author Contributions ( CRediT )

Muhammet Furkan Alpat: Writing—original draft preparation, review and editing; Emrah Görgülü: Supervision, review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Author Notes

This paper was proofread, edited, and refined with the assistance of OpenAI’s GPT-4 (Version as of February 20, 2024), complementing the human editorial process. The human author critically assessed and validated the content to maintain academic rigor. The author also assessed and addressed potential biases inherent in AI-generated content. The final version of the paper is the sole responsibility of the human author (Adopted from: Bozkurt, 2024 ).

Ali, S., Payne, B. H., Williams, R., Park, H. W., & Breazeal, C. (2019). Constructionism, Ethics, and Creativity: Developing Primary and Middle School Artificial Intelligence Education .  

Anderson, D. (2012). The Flipped Classroom for EFL.  

Anderson, T., & Rivera Vargas, P. (2020). A critical look at educational technology from a distance education perspective. Digital Education Review , 37, 208–229. https://doi.org/10.1344/der.2020.37.208-229  

Arani, J. A. (2012). Teaching English Medical Writing in a Blended Setting. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning , 7(4), 34–37. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v7i4.2253  

Bahce, A., & Taslacı, N. (2009). Learners’ Perception of Blended Writing Class: Blog and Face-to Face. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education , 10(4), 188–202.  

Behar-Horenstein, L. S., & Niu, L. (2011). Teaching Critical Thinking Skills In Higher Education: A Review Of The Literature. Journal of College Teaching & Learning (TLC) , 8(2). https://doi.org/10.19030/tlc.v8i2.3554  

Bergman, J., & Sams, A. (2012). Flip Your Classroom: Reach Every Student in Every Class Every Day . USA: Iste. ASCD.  

Bozkurt, A. (2022). A Retro Perspective on Blended/Hybrid Learning: Systematic Review, Mapping and Visualization of the Scholarly Landscape. Journal of Interactive Media in Education . https://doi.org/10.5334/jime.751  

Bozkurt, A. (2024). GenAI et al.: Cocreation, Authorship, Ownership, Academic Ethics and Integrity in a Time of Generative AI. Open Praxis , 16(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.55982/openpraxis.16.1.654  

Bozkurt, A., Gjelsvik, T., Adam, T., Asino, T. I., Atenas, J., Bali, M., … Zawacki-Richter, O. (2023). Openness in Education as a Praxis: From Individual Testimonials to Collective Voices. Open Praxis , 15(2), 76–112. https://doi.org/10.55982/openpraxis.15.2.574  

Campillo-Ferrer, J.-M., & Miralles-Martínez, P. (2021). Effectiveness of the flipped classroom model on students’ self-reported motivation and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications , 8. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-021-00860-4  

Case, R., & Wright, I. (1997). Taking Seriously the Teaching of Critical Thinking .  

Cho, H. J., Zhao, K., Lee, C. R., Runshe, D. D., & Krousgrill, C. (2021). Active learning through flipped classroom in mechanical engineering: Improving students’ perception of learning and performance. International Journal of Stem Education , 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-021-00302-2  

Crenshaw, P., Hale, E., & Harper, S. L. (2011). Producing Intellectual Labor In The Classroom: The Utilization Of A Critical Thinking Model To Help Students Take Command Of Their Thinking. Journal of College Teaching & Learning (TLC) , 8(7), 13. https://doi.org/10.19030/tlc.v8i7.4848  

Disli, O. (2012). Improving Writing Skills through Supplementary Computer-Assisted Activities (Doctoral Dissertation). Gazi University, Graduate School of Educational Sciences, Ankara. (Available from the Council of Higher Education, National Dissertation Center, Dissertation ID: 317053).  

Domu, I., Pinontoan, K. F., & Mangelep, N. O. (2023). Problem-based learning in the online flipped classroom: Its impact on statistical literacy skills. Journal of Education and E-Learning Research . https://doi.org/10.20448/jeelr.v10i2.4635  

Edward D’angelo. (1970). The Teaching of Critical Thinking through Literature .  

Ekmekci, E. (2017). The Flipped Writing Classroom in Turkish EFL Context: A Comparative Study on a New Model. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education (Tojde) , 18(2), 151–167. Retrieved March 16, 2019 from https://doi.org/10.17718/tojde.306566  

Facione, P. A., Facione, N. C., & Giancarlo, C. A. (2000). The Disposition Toward Critical Thinking: Its Character, Measurements, and Relationship to Critical Thinking Skill. Informal Logic , 20, 61–84. https://doi.org/10.22329/il.v20i1.2254  

Ferriman, N. (2013). The Impact of Blended E-Learning on Undergraduate Academic Essay Writing in English (L2). Computers & Education , 60, 243–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.07.008  

Graham, C. R. (2006). Blended Learning Systems Definition, Current Trends, and Future Directions. In C. J. Bonk, & R. Graham (Eds.) (2006). The Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Designs . San Francisco: Pfeiffer.  

Gündoğdu, H. (2009). Eleştirel Düşünme ve Eleştirel Düşünme Öğretimine Dair Bazı Yanılgılar. Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi , 7(1), 57–74.  

Kaye, C., & Ragusa, G. (1998). Boal’s Mirror: Reflections for Teacher Education. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED419787).  

Kökdemir, D. (2003). Belirsizlik Durumunda Karar Verme ve Problem Çözme [Uncertainty in Case Decision Making and Problem Solving] (Unpublished PhD Dissertation). Ankara University, Institute of Social Sciences, Ankara.  

Liu, W. (2023). Critical Thinking Skills For Chinese Teachers: A Study Of Mathematics Teachers’ Perceptıons. Pupil: International Journal of Teaching, Education and Learning , 7(2), 01–16. https://doi.org/10.20319/pijtel.2023.72.0116  

Lyle, E. (1958). An Exploration in the Teaching of Critical Thinking in General-Psychology. The Journal of Educational Research , 52(4), 129–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1958.10882552  

Lynch, B. K. (1996). Language Program Evaluation , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263198301059  

Matsuda, P. K., & DePew, K. E. (2002). Early second language writing: An introduction. Journal of Second Language Writing , 11(4), 261–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1060-3743(02)00087-5  

Mehta, S. R., & Al-Mahrooqi, R. (2014). Can Thinking be Taught? Linking Critical Thinking and Writing in an EFL Context. RELC Journal , 46(1), 23–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688214555356  

Mulnix, J. W. (2012). Thinking Critically about Critical Thinking. Educational Philosophy and Theory , 44(5), 464–479. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2010.00673.x  

Ng, K. T., Parahakaran, S., Febro, R. D., Weisheit, E., & Lee, T. L. (2013). Promoting sustainable living in the borderless world through blended learning platforms. Open Praxis , 5, 275–288. https://doi.org/10.5944/openpraxis.5.4.88  

Paul, R. W., Elder, L., & Bartell, T. (1997). California Teacher Preparation for Instruction in Critical Thinking: Research Findings and Policy Recommendations. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED437379).  

Sharma, L. R., Bhattarai, R., Humagain, A., Subedi, S. P., Thapa, S., & Acharya, H. (2023). Exploring the Underlying Ways of Enhancing Critical Thinking Skills. International Research Journal of MMC , 4(4), 83–96. https://doi.org/10.3126/irjmmc.v4i4.61939  

Shih, R. C. (2011). Can Web 2.0 Technology Assist College Students in Learning English Writing? Integrating Facebook and Peer Assessment with Blended Learning. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology , 27(5), 829–845. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.934  

Silva, T., & Brice, C. (2004). Research in Teaching Writing. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics , 24, 70–106. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190504000042  

Ten Dam, G., & Volman, M. (2004). Critical Thinking as a Citizenship Competence: Teaching Strategies. Learning and Instruction , 14(4), 359–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2004.01.005  

Tilbury, C., Osmond, J., & Scott, T. (2010). Teaching critical thinking in social work education: A literature review .  

Waddoups, G. L., Hatch, G. L., & Butterwoth, S. (2003). Blended Teaching and Learning in a First-Year Composition Course. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education , 4(3), 271–278.  

Williams, R. L. (2005). Targeting Critical Thinking Within Teacher Education: The Potential Impact on Society. The Teacher Educator , 40(3), 163–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/08878730509555359  

Salamah Embark Saleh University of Sabratha, Libya

..................................................

Education Journals    

European Journal of Education Studies

European Journal Of Physical Education and Sport Science

European Journal of English Language Teaching

European Journal of Special Education Research

European Journal of Alternative Education Studies

European Journal of Open Education and E-learning Studies

Public Health Journals

European Journal of Public Health Studies

European Journal of Fitness, Nutrition and Sport Medicine Studies

European Journal of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation Studies

Social Sciences Journals

European Journal of Social Sciences Studies

European Journal of Economic and Financial Research

European Journal of Management and Marketing Studies

European Journal of Human Resource Management Studies

European Journal of Political Science Studies

Literature, Language and Linguistics Journals

European Journal of Literature, Language and Linguistics Studies

European Journal of Literary Studies

European Journal of Applied Linguistics Studies

European Journal of Multilingualism and Translation Studies

• Other Journals
• ##Editorial Board##
• ##Indexing and Abstracting##
• ##Author's guidelines##
• ##Covered Research Areas##
• ##Announcements##
• ##Related Journals##
• ##Manuscript Submission##

CRITICAL THINKING AS A 21st CENTURY SKILL: CONCEPTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION AND CHALLENGES IN THE EFL CLASSROOM

This qualitative research explores the conceptions, implementation and challenges of critical thinking in the FL classroom. 24 Libyan EFL university instructors participated in this study though completing an open-ended questionnaire sent via FB messenger. The content analysis applied to the participants’ answers revealed different conceptions and misconceptions of critical thinking. It also revealed that the majority of the participants implemented critical thinking in different aspects of their teaching. Some social, cultural and administrative barriers limited the effectiveness of this implementation. Nevertheless, the development of this kind of thinking for 21 st century EFL learners is a necessity, not an option.

Article visualizations:

Ajzen, I. 2005. The influence of attitudes on behavior. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264000974.

Aliakbaria, M.; Sadeghdaghighib, A. 2013. Teachers' perception of the barriers to critical thinking. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 70,pp: 1 – 5. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.01.031. www.sciencedirect.com.

Azizinezhad, M; Hashemi, M.; Darvishi, S. 2013. Relationship between EFL teachers’ attitudes, teaching techniques and classroom (large and small). 3rd World Conference on Learning, Teaching and Educational Leadership (WCLTA-2012). Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 93,pp: 134 – 137.

https://ac.els-cdn.com/S1877042813032680/1-s2.0-S1877042813032680- main.pdf?_tid=64b03078-c441-4149-a1e3- 906660c4a06b&acdnat=1527633887_a628947c6b1d4f726e35d9326cbf78f1.

Bashir, A. 2013. An exploratory study of 21st century skills development among educators and students engaged in an online collaborative educational and cultural program. PhD Thesis Submitted to the Graduate School at Appalachian State University. https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/asu/f/Bashir,%20Arshad_2013_Dissertation.pdf.

Bassham, G., Irwin, W., Nardone, H., & Wallace, J. M. (2011). Critical Thinking: A student's Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Black, R. 2009. English-Language Learners, Fan Communities, and 21st-Century Skills. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 52(8).688-697. doi:10.1598/JA AL.52.8.4. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d9b4/c3c01df299ee54676b8078b47597c8d5ad32.p df.

Boholano, H. 2017. Smart social networking: 21st century teaching and learning skills. Research in Pedagogy, Vol. 7,( 1), pp. 21‐29.

Brookfield, S. 1997. Assessing critical thinking. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, no. (75), Jossey-Bass Publishers. Pp: 17-29. https://dental.nyu.edu/content/dam/nyudental/docume.

Brown, M.N. and S.M. Keeley, 2007. Asking the right questions: A guide to critical thinking. Pearson Prentice Hall: New Jersey.

Coffey, H. 2016. Bloom's Taxonomy.

Cox, C. 2014. 21st Century Skills and Principles of Flow in the Foreign Language Classroom". MA Thesis: Brigham Young University. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/4197.

Daniela, L. Ed. 2014. The Teacher of the 21st Century: Quality Education for Quality Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. http://www.cambridgescholars.com/download/sample/61587.

Duron, R. & Limbach, B. & Waugh, W. 2006. Critical thinking framework for any discipline. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education 2006, Vol. 17, (2), pp:160-166. http://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/pdf/IJTLHE55.pdf.

Elfatihi, M. 2017. A rationale for the integration of critical thinking skills in EFL/ESL Instruction. Higher Education of Social Science, Vol. 12, (2), pp. 26-31.

Fandiño, Y. 2013. 21st Century Skills and the English Foreign Language Classroom: A Call for More Awareness in Colombia. Gist Education and Learning Research Journal, 7, pp. 190-208 . ISSN 1692-5777.

Fahim, M.; Rezanejad, A. 2014. Critical Thinking in the EFL Context of Iran.

International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature. Vol. 3, ( 4),pp.: 128- 135.

Florea, N.; Hurjui, E. 2014. Critical thinking in elementary school children. The 6th International Conference Edu World 2014 “Education Facing Contemporary World. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. Vol. 180,pp: 565 – 572. / doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.161.

Helen B. 1 Original scientific paper Cebu Normal University UDK: 37.012 .45 Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Smart Social Networking: 21st Century Teaching And Learning Skills.

Hughes, J. 2014. Critical Thinking in the Language Classroom. Eli.

https://www.ettoi.pl/PDF_resources/Critical_ThinkingENG.pdf.

Ibrahim, A. 2012. Thematic analysis: a critical review of its process and evaluation. West East Journal of Social Sciences. Vol. 1,( 1). https://fac.ksu.edu.sa/sites/default/files/ta_thematic_analysis_dr_mohammed_al hojailan.pdf.

John P. Portelli, J. 1994. The challenge for teaching for critical thinking. McGill Journal of Education, Vol.29, (2),pp:137-152.

http://john-peter-portelli.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/The-Challenge-of- Teaching-for-Critical-Thinking.pdf.

Kanokpermpoon, M. 2012. 21st century language learning and teaching: implementation of ICT-Oriented Language education. Research Gate:

Kennedy, C. 2010. Conceptions of learning and teaching: impact on the perceptions of quality. International Journal of Arts & Science, 3 (17), 111-122.

Khatib, M.; Marefat, F.; Ahmadi, A.; Tabataba, A. 2012. Enhancing critical thinking abilities in FL classrooms: through written and audiotaped dialogue journals. Humanity & Social Sciences Journal 7 (1): 33-45. ISSN 1818-4960 © IDOSI Publications, 2012 DOI: 10.5829/idosi.hssj.2012.7.1.1104

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/caff/1ae335f1090cb19bc4e1ff76ea49e4f86b64.pdf.

Kim, M.; Pollard, V. 2017. A modest critical pedagogy for English as a foreign language education. Education as Change, Vol. 21,( 1), pp. 50–72. www.educationaschange.co.za.

Koosha, M. & Yakhabi, M. 2013. Problems Associated with the Use of Communicative Language Teaching in EFL Contexts and Possible Solutions. International Journal of Second Language Teaching and Research, Vol. 1, ( 2), pp.: 63-76.

Marin, M. & Pava, L. 2017. Conceptions of critical thinking from university EFL teachers. English Language Teaching; Vol. 10, (7). ISSN 1916-4742 E-ISSN 1916-4750. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1144349.pdf.

Mathis, W. 2013. Twenty-first-century skills and implications for education. Research based options for education policymaking. http://nepc.colorado.edu.

Maya Bialik, M. & Fadel, C. 2015. Skills for the21st Century: What Should Students Learn? Center for Curriculum Redesign-Boston, Massachusetts- www.curriculumredesign. or http://curriculumredesign.org/wp- content/uploads/CCR-Skills_FINAL_June2015.pdg.

Nadire, C. 2009. New trends in 21st Century English. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229395107_New_trends_in_21st_Cent ury_English_learning.

https://greatlakescenter.org/docs/Policy_Briefs/Research-Based-Options/08- Mathis-21stCentury.pdf.

Ok, S. 2016. Autonomy in an EFL teacher training context: trainee teacher perceptions of instructor expectations. Australian Journal of Teacher Education Vol. 41, ( 3) , p p: 66-86. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1096790.pdf.

Papak, P. & Vujičić, L. & ŽeljkaIvković, Z. 2017. Project activities and encouraging critical thinking: exploring teachers’ attitudes. c e p s Journal ,Vol.7, (3), pp: 27-46. https://www.pedocs.de/volltexte/2017/14905/pdf/cepsj_2017_3_PejiPapak_Vujii_I vkovi_Project_activities.pdf.

Pennycook, A. 1994. The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language. Teacher Talking to Teacher: Vol. III, ( 3), pp. 21-23. Harlow, Essex, UK: Longman Group Limited. http://www.tnewfields.info/Articles/PDF/reviewPennycook.pdf.

Pineda-Báez, C. 2009. Critical Thinking in the EFL Classroom: The Search for a Pedagogical Alternative to Improve English Learning.

P21 Partnership for 21 Century Learning: Framework for 21st century skills. 2007. http://www.p21.org/our-work/p21-framework. A framework was designed by as a coalition bringing together the business community, education leaders, and policymakers in USA.

Reed, J.H. 1998. Effect of a model for critical thinking on students' achievement in primary source document analysis and interpretation, argumentative reasoning, critical thinking disposition and history content in a community college course. (a PhD dissertation) University of south Florida. Retrieved April 28, 2018 from www.criticalthinking.org.

Rezaei, S.; Derakhshan, A.; Bagherkazemi, M. 2011. Critical Thinking in Language Education. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, Vol. 2,(4), pp. 769-777. ISSN 1798-4769.

Robinson, S. & Kay, K., 2010. 21 century knowledge and skills in educator preparation. This paper has been produced as part of a collaborative project by the American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education and the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21). Pearson,

Qing, X. 2013. Fostering critical thinking competence in EFL classroom. Studies in Literature and Language. Vol. 7, (1), pp. 6-9. DOI:10.3968/j.sll.1923156320130701.2717. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.904.1695&rep=rep1&ty pe=pdf.

Savu, E.; Chirimbu, S.; Dejica-Cartis, A. 2014. What skills do foreign languages teachers need in the 21st century? Professional Communication and Translation Studies, 7 (1- 2), p:151-158.

Shahrebabaki, M. &Notash, M. 2015. Teachers’ and learners’ attitudes towards critical thinking skills: a case study in the Iranian EFL context. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, Vol.2, (2), pp. 93-106.

Soh, T. &; Osman, K. & Arsad, N. 2012. M-21CSI: A Validated 21st Century Skills Instrument for Secondary Science Students. Asian Social Science; Vol. 8, (16).

Stein, B. & Haynes, A. & Unterstein, J. 2003. Assessing critical thinking skills. Research Gate: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229021823_Assessing_critical_thinking _skills.

Uehara, S. 2016. Task-based English language teaching, 21st century skills, and learner perceptions through the Marshmallow Challenge. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303994599_Task-.

Ur, P. 2012. A course in English language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Walser, N. 2008.Teaching 21st century skills: what does it look like in practice? Harvard Education Letter. https://www.siprep.org/uploaded/ProfessionalDevelopment/Readings/21stCentu rySkills.pdf.

Wilson, C.; Miles, C.; Baker, R; Shoenberger, R. 2000. Learning outcomes for the 21st century: report of a community college study. © League for Innovation in the Community College.

Yamith José Fandiño 2* Universidad de la Salle Gist Education and LEarninGrEsEarchJournaL. Vol. 1692-5777, (7). pp. 190-208.

• There are currently no refbacks.

Copyright © 2015 - 2023. European Journal of Foreign Language Teaching (ISSN 2537-1754) is a registered trademark of Open Access Publishing Group .  All rights reserved.

This journal is a serial publication uniquely identified by an International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN ) serial number certificate issued by Romanian National Library ( Biblioteca Nationala a Romaniei ). All the research works are uniquely identified by a CrossRef DOI digital object identifier supplied by indexing and repository platforms.

All the research works published on this journal are meeting the Open Access Publishing requirements and can be freely accessed, shared, modified, distributed and used in educational, commercial and non-commercial purposes under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0) .

• Corpus ID: 212574057

Fostering Critical Thinking Competence in EFL Classroom

• Published 2013
• Education, Linguistics

20 Citations

Critical thinking as a 21st century skill: conceptions, implementation and challenges in the efl classroom, exploring teachers’ perceptions of critical thinking as a 21st century skill in efl classrooms teaching and learning in classrooms, critical thinking development in the milieu of high school education, teacher questioning in college english class: a guide to critical thinking, the use of critical thinking activities through workshops to improve efl learners' speaking skills, on the cultivation of learners’ competence of critical thinking in college english teaching, fostering critical thinking using instructional strategies in english classes, infusing critical thinking skills in the english as a foreign language classroom: a meaningful experience for teachers and students, the effectiveness of teaching critical thinking skills through literature in efl context: a case study in spain, the effect of iraqi efl university students’ critical thinking abilities on their use of language learning strategies, 22 references, the psychology of effective learning and teaching, the role of engagement in inspiring teaching and learning, promoting reflection in professional courses: the challenge of context, critical thinking in japanese l2 writing: rethinking tired constructs, alternative teaching strategies: the case for critical thinking., critical thinking: an introduction, critical thinking: what it is and why it counts, american media and mass culture: left perspectives, how we think : a restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process, related papers.

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Front Psychol

English as a Foreign Language Teachers’ Critical Thinking Ability and L2 Students’ Classroom Engagement

Critical thinking has been the focus of many studies considering the educational and social contexts. However, English as a foreign language (EFL) context is the one in which studies about critical thinking and its link to classroom engagement have not been carried out as much as expected. Hence, this study investigated to understand the association between EFL teachers’ critical thinking ability and students’ classroom engagement to get a broader understanding of the impact critical thinking has on students’ success. To do this, firstly, both variables of this study are defined and explicated. Then, the relationship between critical thinking and students’ classroom engagement is discussed. Finally, the implications of this research and also its limitations along with suggestions for further studies are put forward.

Introduction

“Critical thinking enables individuals to use standards of argumentation, rules of logic, standards of practical deliberation, standards governing inquiry and justification in specialized areas of study, standards for judging intellectual products, etc.” ( Bailin et al., 1999 , p. 291). Paul and Elder (2007) conceptualized critical thinking as the art of analysis and evaluation, considering the point that it can be improved since a quality life needs the quality of thinking. Facione (2011) noted that happiness cannot be guaranteed even if good judgment is practiced and critical thinking is enhanced; however, it undoubtedly offers more opportunities for this goal to be achieved. It has been stressed that autonomy can be shaped through critical thinking ability and one’s learning process can critically be evaluated ( Delmastro and Balada, 2012 ). According to a study conducted by Marin and Pava (2017) , English as a foreign language (EFL) critical thinker has the following characteristics: they are active, continuously asking questions, and seeking information which helps them build associations between L2 learning and other features of everyday life. They describe as people, having the capability to analyze and organize thoughts that can be expressed through speaking and writing. They almost always tries to put what has learned before into practice. Beyond doubt, in order to enhance critical thinking skill in EFL learners, teachers should consider the point that teaching is not just about grammar and vocabulary; instead, it concentrates on enhancing teaching, encouraging to be creative, encourage to learn independently, strategies for making decisions and evaluating himself. Similarly, opportunities must be provided by the educators to provide a learning environment in which autonomous learning, active engagement, reflection on learners’ learning process, and L2 advancement are emphasized, for instance, task-based activities. Thus, this study is different from other studies since the focus is placed on teachers’ critical thinking ability to help students thrive rather than students’ critical thinking ability. The reason is that differentiates it from the previous studies is that providing students with opportunities, in which thinking differently is appreciated, would be absolutely rewarding and it is the skill that should be much more highlighted in the studies. Therefore, critical thinking is a skill through which students’ confidence can be raised, leading to their active engagement in the classroom and their being successful since they can see the issues from a different point of view and novel solutions to those problems can be proposed. In the current study, first of all, both teachers’ critical thinking ability and students’ classroom engagement have been discussed. Given that, the association between these two variables has been dealt with. Then, the implications and restrictions of the study as well as some recommendations for further studies have been proposed.

Teachers’ Critical Thinking Ability

Critical thinking has attracted much attention since teachers’ way of thinking and beliefs has a pivotal impact on what students achieve in terms of academic success and attainments. Dewey (1933 , p. 9), who can be regarded as the father of modern critical thinking, conceptualized it as “active, persistent, and careful of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds which support it and the further conclusions to which it tends.” As defined by Chance (1986) , critical thinking is conceptualized as the capability that one puts into practice to do the followings through this ability: facts which are analyzed, ideas that are generated and organized, opinions that are defended, comparisons that are made, inferences that are drawn, arguments which are evaluated, ideas that are organized, and problems that are solved. As stated by Vdovina and Gaibisso (2013) , critical thinking is relevant to quality thinking that enables learners to communicate with others, gain knowledge, and deal with ideas, attitudes, and beliefs in a more skillful way. Based on what has been proposed by Shirkhani and Fahim (2011) , critical thinking is an integral factor in many ways. The first reason that can be taken into consideration is that when language learners take responsibility for the way they think; they can evaluate the way they learn in a more successful way. Secondly, critical thinking causes learners to experience a meaningful process of learning in which learning a language is meaningful to them. Thirdly, critical thinking and learners’ achievement are positively correlated. If the learners are shown how to think critically, they get proficient in learning a language. Likewise, Liaw (2007) study indicated that when the content-based approach is implemented in the class, it promotes EFL students’ critical thinking skills. It should be noted that in a content-based approach, attention is focused on the content and what can be perceived through it.

Besides, as Davidson (1998) noted, “the English teachers are expected to provide learners with the ability to communicate with native speakers, valuing overt comments, clever criticism, and intellectual claims.” In a similar manner, Meyers (1986) proposed that teachers can facilitate critical thinking through the activities that are assigned, the tasks that are set, and the feedback that is provided. A study done in a Chinese context by Li and Liu (2021) put forward the taxonomy of critical thinking ability in the EFL learning context and in this study, five skills through which critical thinking can be practiced, were proposed: analyzing, inferring, evaluating, synthesizing, and self-reflection/self-correction ( Wang and Derakhshan, 2021 ). Li (2021) also indicated that the development of critical thinking in international students can be facilitated by learning Chinese. According to a study done by Birjandi and Bagherkazemi (2010) , a critical thinker has the following characteristics:

• • problems are identified by them and relevant solutions are dealt with,
• • valid and invalid inferences are recognized by them,
• • decisions and judgments are suspended by them when there is not enough evidence to prove it
• • the difference between logical reasoning and justifying is perceived by them
• • relevant questions are asked by them to see if their students have understood
• • statements and arguments are evaluated
• • lack of understanding can be accepted by them
• • they have developed a sense of curiosity
• • clear criteria for analyzing ideas are defined
• • he is a good listener and gives others feedback
• • he believes that critical thinking is a never-ending process that needs to be evaluated
• • judgment is suspended by them until all facts have been collected
• • they seek evidence for the assumptions to be advocated
• • opinions are adjusted by them when there are some new facts
• • incorrect information is easily rejected by them.

Consequently, according to the characteristics mentioned above, teachers with the ability to think critically is good problem solvers and when facing a problem during the class, they can have greater reasoning skills so as to find a solution to the problem. They are curious and they also ask their students questions to create a sense of curiosity in them. Additionally, they do not accept the new ideas easily, instead, they analyze them and sometimes make them better.

Classroom Engagement

Engagement is an inseparable part of the learning process and a multifold phenomenon. Classroom engagement refers to the amount of participation that students take in the class to be actively involved in the activities and whether the mental and physical activities have a goal. Engagement itself is a context-oriented phrase which relies on cultures, families, school activities, and peers ( Finn and Zimmer, 2012 ). It has been categorized into different groups: Behavioral engagement such as the amount to which students participate actively in the class; emotional engagement pertains to high levels of enthusiasm which is linked to high levels of boredom and anxiety; cognitive engagement such as the usage of learning strategy and self-regulation; agentic engagement such as the amount of conscious effort so that the learning experience would be enriched ( Wang and Guan, 2020 ; Hiver et al., 2021 ). Amongst the aforementioned categories, the one which is strongly important in the learning process is behavioral engagement in that it is relevant to the actual recognition of an individual’s learning talents ( Dörnyei, 2019 ). Another possibility that can be viewed is to consider engagement from two other aspects, internal and external. The former implies how much time and effort is allocated to the process of the learning. The latter entails the measures that are taken at the institutional level so that the resources would be dealt with along with other options of learning and services for support, encouraging the involvement in activities leading to the possible outcomes such as consistency and satisfaction ( Harper and Quaye, 2009 ).

Much attention is deserved to be paid to engagement since it is perceived as a behavioral means with which students’ motivation can be realized and as a result, development through the learning process can occur ( Jang et al., 2010 ). Active involvement should be strengthened in L2 classes to prevent disruptive behaviors and diminish the valence of emotions that are negative such as feeling anxious, frustrated, and bored.

Regarding “classroom engagement,” its opposie word “disengagement” can play a significant role in not engaging the students in the class, leading to them feeling bored and demotivated in the class, so from this aspect, it would be worth considering this phrase as well. It has been claimed by some authors ( Skinner, 2016 ) that disengagement itself does not happen frequently in educational settings due largely to the fact that it is related to extreme behaviors, and it is when another phrase disaffection can be considered significant. Disaffection is characterized by disinterest, aversion, resignation, and reduced effort. Therefore, our perception of boredom as a complex emotion can be enhanced, and it can be dealt with more systematically if boredom is viewed through the following factors, disengagement, and disaffection ( Wang and Guan, 2020 ; Derakhshan et al., 2021 ). As Elder and Paul (2004) mentioned, students should be taught to actively make questions- that is a good emblem of engagement- which is a radical part of critical thinking. The more the students can question, the more they can learn. Some students get accustomed to memorizing the facts and have never been faced with the outcomes of the poor decisions they made since there is always someone to back them and they had better be challenged, being questioned by their teachers ( Rezaei et al., 2011 ).

The Relationship Between Teachers’ Critical Thinking Ability and Classroom Engagement

Critical thinking has been said to widen one’s horizon because it may shape students’ mindsets and help them take a look at items from a different viewpoint. When one has learned to think critically, they will never accept the status quo easily, he will welcome the opposing ideas and will evaluate the arguments. In the EFL context, when a learner has the capability to think critically, or he has been taught to think critically, he always looks for reasons learning new materials and in this respect, his curiosity allows him to learn everything in depth and challenge his schemata to make a link between the newly learned ideas and the ones he has already known. Critical thinking is not a term that can be utilized just for the specific type of people; it can be taught and practiced to be enhanced. The way ideas can be generated and the way comparisons can be made is highly relevant to what has been called critical thinking. Different items can be conceptualized in different ways when we look at them through the lens of critical thinking; therefore, it can have a positive effect on students’ mindsets and the way they live. From an educational point of view, the decisions that have been made by the students, the solutions that have been put forward to tackle a problem when it comes to a learning context, and the way through which their process of learning is ameliorated are all impacted by teachers’ critical thinking. When teachers think critically and they strive to see different skills from a different point of view, it is where students’ sense of curiosity is tickled and their imagination is stretched so as to think of things in a various way.

Implications and Further Suggestions for Research

Critical thinking is believed to have an enormous effect on students’ classroom engagement. As mentioned above, according to Dewey (1933) , the more the students practice thinking critically, the more successful they are in terms of academic achievements because they can decide more rationally, and their problems can be addressed more sensibly. Attention should be paid that this study is of great significance for those people who are engaged in the learning process including those devising curriculums, develop materials, teachers, and learners. Critical thinking is a skill that should be developed in learners so that they would compare and contrast ideas, and as a result, decide wisely and accomplish what they have planned for. Accordingly, opportunities must be provided by the educators to provide a learning environment in which autonomous learning, active engagement, reflection on learners’ learning process, and L2 advancement are emphasized, for example, task-based activities ( Han and Wang, 2021 ).

Additionally, further studies can be done to find more about the variables in this study.

With regard to various age groups, the understanding of critical thinking might be different. Teenagers are said to start thinking critically and hypothetically; however, undoubtedly there is a big difference between what can be perceived about critical thinking by teenagers and adolescents in the educational contexts. Consequently, how different levels of critical thinking can be conceptualized in the learning context is one of the studies that can be conducted in the future. Secondly, teachers’ success and well-being are also tremendously affected by the way they think. Therefore, from this point of view, a study can be conducted in the future so as to find the correlation between teachers’ critical thinking and other aspects of their lives. The reason why this study should be carried out is that considering the L2 environment, students’ way of thinking is impacted by how they are treated by their teachers. Teachers are supposed to equip students with techniques through which the learning process will be facilitated and students’ creativity will be boosted, therefore, it is what helps them to be critical thinkers both in the classroom context and out of it. Another line of research that is worth being done is that diverse activities that can enhance learners’ ability of critical thinking should be categorized based on learners’ characters. In a modern educational world where individual differences are emphasized, classroom activities should be classified, regarding the learning differences of the learners. Therefore, according to Birjandi and Bagherkazemi (2010) ; Vdovina and Gaibisso (2013) , and Li and Liu (2021) , teachers’ critical thinking ability play a vital role in how students are engaged in the class.

Author Contributions

The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

This review was supported by the Social Science Foundation of Hebei Province of China “Testing and Research on Critical Thinking Ability of Undergraduates in Hebei Province under the Background of ‘Belt and Road’ Education Action” (Project Number: HB20YY017).

• Bailin S., Case R., Coombs J. R., Daniels L. B. (1999). Conceptualizing critical thinking. J. Curric. Stud. 31 285–302. 10.1080/002202799183133 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Birjandi P., Bagherkazemi M. (2010). The relationship between Iranian EFL teachers’ critical thinking ability and their professional success. Engl. Lang. Teach. 3 135–145. 10.5539/elt.v3n2p135 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chance P. (1986). Thinking in the Classroom: A Survey of Programs. New York, NY: Teachers college press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Davidson B. (1998). A case for critical thinking in the English language classroom. TESOL Q. 32 119–123. 10.2307/3587906 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Delmastro A. L., Balada E. (2012). Modelo y estrategias para la promoción del pensamiento crítico en el aula de lenguas extranjeras. Synergies Venezuela 7 25–37. [ Google Scholar ]
• Derakhshan A., Kruk M., Mehdizadeh M., Pawlak M. (2021). Boredom in online classes in the Iranian EFL context: sources and solutions. System 101 :102556. 10.1016/j.system.2021.102556 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dewey J. (1933). How we Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Educational Process. Boston, MA: D.C. Heath and company in English, 301. [ Google Scholar ]
• Dörnyei Z. (2019). Towards a better understanding of the L2 learning experience, the Cinderella of the L2 motivational self system. Stud. Sec. Lang. Learn. Teach. 9 19–30. 10.14746/ssllt.2019.9.1.2 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Elder L., Paul R. (2004). Critical thinking. and the art of close reading, part IV. J. Dev. Educ. 28 36–37. [ Google Scholar ]
• Facione P. A. (2011). Critical thinking: what it is and why it counts. Insight Asses. 2007 1–23. [ Google Scholar ]
• Finn J. D., Zimmer K. S. (2012). “ Student engagement: what is it? Why does it matter? ,” in Handbook of Research on Student Engagement , eds Christenson S. L., Reschly A. L., Wylie C. (Boston, MA: Springer; ), 97–131. 10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_5 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Han Y., Wang Y. (2021). Investigating the correlation among Chinese EFL Teachers’ self-efficacy, reflection, and work engagement. Front. Psychol. 12 :763234. 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.763234 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Harper S. R., Quaye S. J. (2009). “ Beyond sameness, with engagement and outcomes for all: an introduction ,” in Student Engagement in Higher Education , eds Harper S. R., Quaye S. J. (New York, NY: Routledge; ), 1–15. 10.1515/9781501754586-003 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hiver P., Al-Hoorie A. H., Vitta J. P., Wu J. (2021). Engagement in language learning: a systematic review of 20 years of research methods and definitions. Lang. Teach. Res. 10.1177/13621688211001289 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jang H., Reeve J., Deci E. L. (2010). Engaging students in learning activities: it is not autonomy support or structure but autonomy support and structure. J. Educ. Psychol. 102 588–600. 10.1037/a0019682 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Li X., Liu J. (2021). Mapping the taxonomy of critical thinking ability in EFL. Think. Skills Creat. 41 :100880. 10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100880 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Li Z. (2021). Critical thinking cultivation in Chinese learning classes for International students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Think. Skills Creat. 40 :100845. 10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100845 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Liaw M. L. (2007). Content-based reading and writing for critical thinking skills in an EFL context. Engl. Teach. Learn. 31 45–87. 10.6330/ETL.2007.31.2.02 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Marin M. A., Pava L. (2017). Conceptions of critical thinking from university EFL teachers. Engl. Lang. Teach. 10 78–88. 10.5539/elt.v10n7p78 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Meyers C. (1986). Teaching Students to Think Critically. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Inc. [ Google Scholar ]
• Paul R., Elder L. (2007). The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts & Tools. Tomales, CA: Foundation for Critical Thinking. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rezaei S., Derakhshan A., Bagherkazemi M. (2011). Critical thinking in language education. J. Lang. Teach. Res. 2 769–777. 10.4304/jltr.2.4.769-777 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shirkhani S., Fahim M. (2011). Enhancing critical thinking in foreign language learners. Proc. Soc. Behav. Sci. 29 111–115. 10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.214 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Skinner E. (2016). “ Engagement and disaffection as central to processes of motivational resilience and development ,” in Handbook of Motivation at School , eds Wentzel K. R., Miele D. B. (New York, NY: Routledge; ), 145–168. 10.4324/9781315773384 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Vdovina E., Gaibisso L. (2013). Developing critical thinking in the English Language classroom: a lesson plan. ELTA J. 1 54–68. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wang Y. L., Guan H. F. (2020). Exploring demotivation factors of Chinese learners of English as a foreign language based on positive psychology. Rev. Argent. Clin. Psicol. 29 851–861. 10.24205/03276716.2020.116 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wang Y. L., Derakhshan A. (2021). Book review on “Professional development of CLIL teachers. Int. J. Appl. Linguist. 1–4. 10.1111/ijal.12353 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]