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Mobile navigation, the rise of female pastel artists: from rosalba carriera to mary cassatt.

By Furio Rinaldi

December 23, 2021

She knew how to express with incomparable force the evanescent delicacy of an epoch. —Roberto Longhi on Rosalba Carriera, 1946

Through a prominent array of works by female artists, the exhibition Color into Line: Pastels from the Renaissance to the Present sheds light on the key role women played in the development and evolution of pastel.

There are few surviving examples from the 17th century attesting to women’s experimentation with colored chalks and pastels. It was only in the 18th century that pastels became closely associated with women. This was mostly due to the overwhelming critical and commercial success achieved by a female artist from Venice, Rosalba Carriera (1673–1757), known as Rosalba, who popularized pastel as a medium for high-end portraiture. Capturing the essence of her time—sophisticated, mundane, and seductive—Rosalba’s allegories and bust-length portraits were executed through innovative techniques, such as using dry brushes and mixing pastels with water, that endowed her works with an unprecedented painterly effect and velvety finish. Her style proved to be highly influential for her male contemporaries, from Jean-Baptiste Perroneau (1715–1783) to Jean-Étienne Liotard (1702–1789), setting pastel’s technical standards for centuries to come.

Rosalba Carriera, Portrait of a Lady as Diana , ca. 1720. Pastel On Blue Paper, Laid Down On Canvas, 13 3/16 x 10 13/16 in. Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Prentis Cobb Hale Jr., 1959.114. Photograph by Randy Dodson, image courtesy of the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco

While several female artists gained recognition in the previous centuries, none was more influential nor met with similar critical appreciation than Rosalba. Her achievements were recognized first by the market (as she enjoyed tremendous commercial and financial success), as well as by the critics: for her merits as a pastel artist, Rosalba was welcomed as a member by the art academies in Rome (1705), Bologna (1720) and, in a notable exception to its 1706 statute against admitting women, the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture, which accepted her in Paris in 1721.

Curator Furio Rinaldi in a conversation with Xavier F. Salomon, deputy director and chief curator at the Frick Collection, on Rosalba’s impressive body of work and adventurous life.

Women’s limited access to art academies, as well as the inferior academic status initially granted to pastel and related genres (like portraiture and still life ), contributed to its growing popularity among female artists in the 18th century, especially in France. When in 1770 the Académie royale finally revised its rules and resumed the admission of women, Elisabeth-Louise Vigée-LeBrun (1755–1842) was among the few artists to enter the institution and enjoy the privileges previously granted only to her male counterparts—namely, exhibiting and selling work at the state-sponsored exhibition held in the Salon Carré at the Louvre, commonly known as the ‘Salon.’

Elisabeth Louise Vigée-Lebrun, Portrait of Mrs. Spencer Perceval (née Jane Wilson, 1769–1844) , 1804, Private collection. Image courtesy Wikimedia

Vigée-LeBrun mastered the crayons with superb deftness of touch, learning the craft from her father, Louis Vigée (1715–1767). “My father made very good pastel drawings; he did some which would have been worthy of the famous Latour. My father allowed me to do some heads in that style, and, in fact, let me mess with his crayons all day,” she wrote in her memoir, which she composed between 1835 and 1837. Louis Vigée’s striking portrait of his mother (Elisabeth’s grandmother) is part of the Museum’s collection and attests to his daughter’s praise.

Elisabeth Louise Vigée-LeBrun, A Hilly Landscape with a River , ca. 1820. Pastel on paper, 9 1/16 x 10 13/16 in. (23 x 27.5 cm.). Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, Museum purchase, Achenbach Foundation for Graphic Arts Endowment Fund, 2021.58. Photograph by Randy Dodson, image courtesy of the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco

Mostly famed for her portraits , Vigée-LeBrun played a seminal role in the development of pastel landscapes. The artist first applied herself to the genre upon her exile to continental Europe after the French Revolution in 1789. Returning to France from Switzerland in 1808, the artist brought with her “about two hundred pastel landscapes,” by her own count, of which only approximately fifteen survive today. The rare example A Hilly Landscape with a River (ca. 1820), recently acquired by the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, is characterized by its striking modernity. In taking up her pastels to immortalize the landscape, the artist inaugurated a practice that went on to flourish in the 19th century. Easy to handle and well suited for excursions, pastel gradually overtook watercolor and oils as the most popular medium for executing landscapes.

Marie Gabrielle Capet, Portrait of Marie-Joseph Chénier (1764–1811) , ca. 1798. Iris & B. Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts at Stanford University, California, Gift of Mortimer C. Leventritt, 1941.305. Image courtesy Wikimedia

While never accepted by the Académie royale, Marie Gabrielle Capet (1761–1818) experienced an accomplished career as a pastel portrait artist. Trained and mentored by Adélaïde Labille-Guiard (1749–1803) , another female artist working in pastel, Capet gained recognition in post-revolutionary France for sophisticated portraits characterized by cool colors and rigorous designs, as demonstrated by her portrait of the Jacobin revolutionary Marie-Joseph Chénier (ca. 1798), on loan to the Legion of Honor from the Cantor Arts Center. Fashionably decked out in a fitted redingote and cravat, his hair au naturel (without a wig), the sitter in this portrait comes to life through Capet’s spontaneous depiction of him. Her work marked an important transition from the frivolity of the ancien régime (pre-revolutionary France) to the restrained sobriety of the French Consulate period (1799–1804).

While many women in the late 18th and early 19th centuries were establishing themselves as working artists, the male-dominated market and academic circles continued to promote a gendered discourse when valuing the medium of pastel. Disparagingly, the literature from the period often compared pastels’ powdery medium, palette, and application to women’s makeup and dismissed those working in this technique as hobbyists and amateurs. To criticize the Swiss pastel painter Jean-Étienne Liotard (1702–1789), the president of the Royal Academy of Arts in London, Joshua Reynolds , infamously stated that “his pictures are just what ladies do when they paint for amusement.” The treatment that Eva Gonzalès (1849–1883) received at the 1874 Salon exemplifies such practice, even decades later. While her ambitious realist painting Une loge aux Italiens was quickly rejected by the admission jury, her pastel La matinée rose , an intimate toilette scene, was accepted.

Curator Furio Rinaldi in conversation with Laura D. Corey, project manager and senior researcher at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, discussing challenges encountered by female artists in 19th-century France

Gonzalès’s intimate portrait of her younger sister, Jeanne, offers a luminous example of the artist’s unique and bold pastel handling: by using short hatched lines, she ensured maximum brilliance and dynamic effects. Gonzalès adopted a canvas support, whose surface provided the tooth necessary to hold the particles of color (a practice she adapted from Édouard Manet [1832–1883], her mentor). In the lower left of the work, a wide, band-like stroke is visible, where she flattened and dragged the side of the pastel stick, suggesting a wrapped bouquet of flowers.

Eva Gonzalés, The Woman in Pink (La Femme en rose) (portrait of Jeanne Gonzalès) , 1879. Pastel, 45 × 37 cm. Collection of Diane B. Wilsey. Photograph courtesy of the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco

The birth of Impressionism marked a powerful resurgence for pastel across Europe and America. Advocating truthfulness and modernity, artists such as Gonzalès, Berthe Morisot (1841–1895), and Mary Cassatt (1844–1926) pursued a new spontaneity in pastel through highly experimental techniques and striking color effects. The medium’s saturated brilliance was particularly suited to these artists’ bold sensibilities, while its formulation, with no drying time, allowed them to execute works far more rapidly than they could with oil painting. This reduced sitters’ posing time, which was an advantage specifically in the portrayal of children, who could not (or would not) sit still for long periods. In 1898, Cassatt remarked to Harris Whittemore that pastel was, in fact, “the most satisfactory medium for [portraying] children,” a sentiment she shared with her contemporaries Morisot, Armand Guillaumin (1841–1927), and Theodore Butler (1876–1937).

Mary Cassatt, Bust of a Young Woman , ca. 1885–1890. Pastel, Over Charcoal (or Black Chalk), On Discolored Gray Wove Paper, 16 7/8 x 15 3/16 in. Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, Memorial Gift from Dr. T. Edward and Tullah Hanley, Bradford, Pennsylvania, 69.30.22. Photograph by Randy Dodson, image courtesy of the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco

Cassatt’s bold mastery of the medium is displayed in the unfinished portrait Bust of a Young Woman (ca. 1885–1890), a highlight of the museum’s collection. Drawn with dynamic and gestural strokes, the freely crosshatched backdrop of yellow and light-blue pastel lines underscores the sitter’s sour expression (made evident by her arched eyebrows). Cassatt’s bold pastel techniques and unconventional palette were deeply influenced by her close friendship with Edgar Degas (1834–1917), who held this work in his personal art collection.

Radically diverging from the painterly style of the past, female Impressionist artists preferred their pastels to have a looser, more sketch-like appearance. They often obtained this effect by using a rapid hatching system that infused works with a vibrant, lifelike quality. Gonzalès, Cassatt, and Morisot applied pastel to daring subjects with great technical prowess. In doing so, they asserted themselves as formidable artists, transcending and even overturning the traditional narrative that pastel was particularly suited to women’s assumedly “more delicate” sensibilities.

Text by Furio Rinaldi, Curator of Drawings and Prints, Achenbach Foundation for Graphics Arts at the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco

Color into Line: Pastels from the Renaissance to the Present is on view at the Legion of Honor from October 9, 2021 through February 13, 2022.

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Pastel Drawing Techniques for Artists of all Levels

09 Nov 2021

Art Tutorials

Pastels are one of the easiest mediums to choose as a beginner to the art world. There is no preparation required, almost no clean up, you don’t need any other equipment or materials, and there is no waiting time needed before you can add to or move your artwork. Whether you like to work neatly or expressively, upright or flat, soft pastels are a great medium for artists of all levels.

Whether you’re new to pastels or just looking for some more advanced pastel techniques, we have got you covered. Our list of soft pastel techniques can be applied by any artist to any surface. Read away to get started with these quick and simple chalk pastel techniques!

Layering colour

Working with soft pastels is slightly different to working with paints. Mixing colours is necessary to acquire the exact shades we want, as it’s not possible to include all the colours in the world in one set of colours. While you can create new shades and combine paint colours in a palette, this is not possible with soft pastels. To mix colours, you will have to combine two different pastels on the page or canvas. There are a few ways you can do this.

First of all, you can blend one colour into another with your finger. The texture of pastels lends itself to soft edges and blended colours. Alternatively, you can soften a colour with your finger and layer another colour on top. Lastly, it is also perfectly possible to layer two un-blended colours on top of one another before touching the page with your fingers or blending material.

Working with the flat side

With pencil-shaped pastels, it can feel natural to use the end as you would a coloured pencil. This will create bold lines of one thickness. However, you should not rule out the side of the pastel. On paper with more open grain, this can create excellent texture in your art. This can also allow you to cover wide areas with just a few strokes. You can choose to blend this for a smoother colour or leave it for a more rough look.

Many people choose to break their pastels to help in their chalk pastel techniques. This creates more interesting shapes rather than just two edges. Be prepared for a bit of mess when working with broken pieces.

Scumbling is one of the more advanced pastel techniques, however it is simple enough for even beginners to try, with the right equipment. When you ‘scumble’ with soft pastels, you are yet again layering your colours. But when scumbling you ‘fix’ your first layer of pastel, which can be done using hairspray or a professional art fixative on your art. You can then layer soft pastel lines or shades over the top. The layer that is fixed provides a surface with a different texture for the new layers to stick to, creating a fascinating touch to your art.

The softness of pastels is excellent for creating softness in your art and lends itself to blending colour. However, the nature of soft pastels can make it difficult if you want to create a strong line. For a more refined line or edge, you can use another sheet of paper to cover the area you wish to shield. This can be an area of white or another pastel colour you want to keep clear. Then use your pastels as you wish across the 2nd piece of paper, making sure it stays fixed in the desired position. When you remove your shield, you will see that the pastels have spared this area but continued to the rest of your artwork, creating a hard line or edge as desired.

Mixed Media Artwork

Soft pastel techniques are not limited to one medium. Soft pastels make excellent additions to mixed media artwork. Try a watercolour wash, or combine your soft pastels with hard pastels for more detail or definition. Even collage can create more interesting textures for chalk pastel techniques to pick up or highlight. While mixed media is excellent for pastels, you should note that they do not work well with oil paints, so you should instead choose watercolour or gouache paints. To make your soft pastel colour changes even smoother, you can add water to extend your pastel colours.

If you are just starting out using pastels, check out our range of professional and affordable soft pastels from brands like Royal & Langnickel and Faber .

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Detail from a colorful pastel drawing of a cloudy sunset.

Clockwise from top: box of pastel sticks (crayons), modern pastel pencils, knife, stumps, sponges, powdered pastels

Pastel is fabricated from one or several finely ground pigments, a pulverized inert white filler such as ground calcium carbonate or kaolin, and a minuscule amount of binder such as gum tragacanth. The powdered ingredients are combined and rolled into sticks of colored powder, the consistency of which must be sufficiently cohesive to allow them to be grasped between the fingers, yet crumble when stroked across a support. Pastel is usually drawn on paper, which must have a slight texture or “tooth” to grab and hold the medium on its surface.

Prized for its brilliant color, pastel was first used in the sixteenth century, notably by Leonardo da Vinci. It flourished in the eighteenth century, again in the late nineteenth century, and remains popular today. The optical vibrancy of a work in pastel results both from the absence of yellowing resins in its composition and the reflection of light from the innumerable facets of the finely ground powder. It is an opaque medium and does not depend upon the underlying brightness of the paper to impart luminosity. In the eighteenth century, artists invariably used blue or gray papers because of the slightly coarse texture of such colored sheets.

The medium is available in a variety of forms, including loose powdered pastel and pastel pencils, but most often, pastel is applied directly with the color stick. The broad side, when gently applied, produces areas of light tone revealing the texture of the paper, while more defined, saturated strokes may be achieved using the tip of the stick and applying it with greater pressure.

Pastels may be manipulated in many ways. A painterly effect can be achieved by carefully spreading the powder with a finger or a stump (a soft tool such as a tight coil of paper, leather, or a sponge), or by using a brush.

Pastel may be used as a simple drawing tool for marks and broad passages, such as in this sixteenth-century preparatory work by Jacopo Bassano.

A faint pastel drawing of a bearded man in the outfit of a roman soldier with his arms upstretched on dark brown paper.

Jacopo Bassano (Jacopo da Ponte) (Italian, 1510-1592). Studies for Scourging a Soldier and the Head of Christ (detail), ca. 1565. Pastel with red chalk on laid light brown paper (formerly blue), 15 1/16 x 9 9/16 in. (38.3 x 24.3 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Gift, 1999 (1999.390)

Its use can also be complex. When mixed with water, pastel forms an opaque paint-like substance that may be applied by brush to produce accents and highlights. Artists can further vary the texture by employing a combination of soft and hard pastels in the work of art. As a powder, pastel does not form a solid layer and excessive blending and mixing diminish its brilliance. The richest chromatic effects are achieved by applying marks with individual sticks of color. This accounts for the innumerable ready-made hues and tints common to boxes of pastel. For many artists, this manner of applying color as separate strokes rather than as mixtures provides opportunities to create striking tonal relationships. Edgar Degas, for example, placed strokes of complementary and contrasting hues side by side and interwove them to produce tapestries of color.

A colorful pastel drawing of a nude woman's upper body from behind as she puts her amber hair into a ponytail.

Edgar Degas (French, 1834–1917). Woman Combing Her Hair (detail), ca. 1888–90. Pastel on light green wove paper, now discolored to warm gray, affixed to original pulpboard mount, 24 1/8 x 18 1/8 in. (61.3 x 46 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Nate B. Spingold, 1956 (56.231)

Odilon Redon animated the surfaces of his compositions by employing a great diversity of strokes, while Maurice Quentin de La Tour, on the other hand, alternated passages of color and fixative to physically stabilize the underlying layers while allowing evidence of them to remain visible.

Left: a very colorful, abstract pastel drawing of various flowers. Right: a photorealistic close-up image from a pastel drawing of a pale man's face looking to the left.

Left: Odilon Redon (French, 1840–1916). Bouquet of Flowers (detail), ca. 1900–1905. Pastel on paper, 31 5/8 x 25 1/4 in. (80.3 x 64.1 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift of Mrs. George B. Post, 1956 (56.50). Right: Maurice Quentin de La Tour (French, 1704–1788). Préparation for a Portrait of Louis XV (1710-1774) (detail), ca. 1745. Pastel on blue paper, arched top, 12 7/8 x 9 7/16 in. (32.7 x 24 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift of Mary Tavener Holmes, in honor of Donald Posner, 2005 (2005.66)

Applying fixative to a composition may compress the powder, darken the colors, and diminish the amount of reflected light. For this reason, few artists have employed surface coatings to stabilize pastel. Because they are inherently powdery, pastel drawings are extremely fragile and vulnerable to abrasion and smudging.

Highlights from the Collection

Gustavus Hamilton (1710–1746), Second Viscount Boyne, in Masquerade Costume

Marquee image: Eugène Delacroix (French, 1798–1863). Sunset (detail), ca. 1850. Pastel on blue laid paper, 8 1/16 x 10 3/16 in. (20.4 x 25.9 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift from the Karen B. Cohen Collection of Eugène Delacroix, in honor of Philippe de Montebello, 2014 (2014.732.4)

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Articles » Drawing » 6 Great How to Use Soft Pastels Drawing Techniques

6 Great How to Use Soft Pastels Drawing Techniques

Last Updated: February 18, 2020
Written by: Elisabeth Larson Koehler

This article may contain affiliate links, please read my affiliate disclosure for more information.

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I absolutely love soft pastel drawing, and have been hooked ever since I started using them! I could not recommend the medium more. There is a greater sense of immediacy with soft pastels than compared to painting with oils or acrylics.

I say this because one can create a quick sketch much quicker with soft pastels than with paint. Which is why, I find soft pastels drawing really great for creating brief portrait drawings or even taking with you when traveling.

However, enough about how great drawing with soft pastels is and here are some great soft pastels drawing techniques you can use!

Creating lines with the edge of a pastel

clean pastel mark made with the edge of a soft pastel stick

When creating a line use the edge of the end of a pastel stick. Hold it upright like you would a pencil. It is a great way to capture a clean line in your soft pastel drawing. You can vary the types of lines you do by how much pressure you apply to the stick. The more pressure you place on the stick the `thicker the line will be. A light touch will create feather light lines. You can add a variation of them both in your drawing.

Using the side of soft pastels for drawing

a soft pastel broken in half with a soft pastel mark made with the side of a pastel stick.

Using the side of a pastel is a great way to create a variety of marks in your soft pastel drawing. I like to break my pastel stick in half because the length of a full stick is too long unless you are working on a very large drawing. Using the side of a pastel can be an effective way to put down a lot of color at once as well as ‘block in’ areas. It is a wonderful way to create beautiful wide strokes. Try it out!

Hatching and Cross Hatching

You can create hatched marks by drawing clean lines on top of some color with the edge of a pastel. If you want to create a cross hatched texture then draw diagonal lines like in the example above. This technique can help you ‘test’ out some colors without fully committing. Also, doing this can help mix colors without blending. And placing orange on top of blue like in the image above is a way to create a muted blue.

Blending soft pastels drawing techniques

One of the most unique aspects of soft pastels is that you are able to blend the colors together. You can use the blending technique to either mix colors together or create a variety of edges . You can use a variety of tools for blending – either your finger, paper towel, a piece of cloth or a cotton ball!

Blending can create incredibly soft effects. Just be sure not to use it too much. If everything is soft then your drawing will lose all character. Rather, you want to vary the texture in your drawing.

For help with color mixing principals and techniques grab my FREE Color Mixing Guide if you haven’t already!

Scumbling tips for drawing with pastels

A great way of getting some textural effects with vibrant color is to lightly drag some pastel across a layer of already fixed color. The effect this creates can be very visually stimulating. Just know that it is best to use the softest of the softest pastels for this technique.

Layering soft pastels

layering colors in a soft pastel drawing. Soft pastel drawing technique

Layering is the only way you will be able to mix colors with your soft pastel drawing! It is essential if you want to create specific and rich colors in your. You will lay down a base color and lay down a color on top of that, and depending on what color you are trying to achieve you can lay down more colors. You can either leave the colors as they are, or you can blend them together on your paper to create a softened effect. Just be sure to lay down colors lightly. If you press too hard you will not be able to layer many colors.

Recommended Materials

Below are some recommended soft pastels. For a thorough overview of the best materials for starting in Soft pastels check out Soft Pastel Drawing for Beginners.

Sennelier Soft Pastels – Half Stick set of 80

I personally love Sennelier Soft Pastels. They are one of the softest buttery pastels I have ever experienced and are very fun to use. You can create beautiful drawings with the brilliant colors these soft pastels come in. This particular set comes in half sticks with a range of 80 different colors.

Sennelier Soft Pastels – Portrait Colors – Set of 40

If you are a portrait or figure artist, this is the pastel set for you! It comes in a set of 40 different colors

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Soft Pastel for Beginners: How to Draw with Soft Pastel

Soft pastel is a wonderful medium, it’s ultra soft, blendable, vibrant and it almost feels like painting with pure pigment. For these reasons, it lends itself to expressive applications. Drawing with soft pastels feels very immediate and spontaneous and the results you can get are stunning! It’s also versatile, as it can be used in mixed media applications.

Learn soft pastel for beginners, in this tutorial find everything you need to know to start creating masterpieces with the medium. From the best supplies to get and how to use them, to some of the essential techniques and how to create a soft pastel drawing from scratch. Some artists may not like the dust and mess that soft pastel can create, but follow the tips in this guide to prevent some common problems and mistakes when pastel painting to get the best results from your artwork.

Disclaimer: Fine Art Tutorials is a reader supported site. When you make purchases through links on this site, we may earn a small commission at no extra cost to you.

How to draw with soft pastels

Draw with pastels in layers. Start by blocking in shapes and leave the details until last. Colours will naturally blend and mix into one another unless a fixative is applied between layers. To create sharper details and hard edges, apply a small amount of fixative and use a pastel suited for detail work like Terry Ludwigs .

If you’re using different brands of soft pastel in one piece, layer the harder pastels first and use the softest pastels for the final layers. Layering a hard pastel on top of a soft pastel may rub some of the pastel from previous layers off the drawing.

The tooth of the paper can quickly fill up when pastel painting. Once the paper’s tooth is chocked full of pastel, it will be difficult to apply more without the painting appearing muddy or overworked. To avoid this, use a paper like Pastelmat with the lightest touch you can manage. A light touch will give you more room to refine form, increase values, make adjustments and mix colours.

Soft pastel techniques

There are a multitude of different techniques that artists use with soft pastels. In this section, I’ll outline a few basic techniques that will give you a feel for how to create different effects with the medium. If you want to learn 12 soft pastel techniques in more detail, check out our guide!

Side stroke technique

Hold the pastel on its side. Then, with a light touch, sweep the pastel across the paper. This technique works brilliantly for covering large areas of the surface quickly. Use the technique with square or round shaped pastel, however this technique works beautifully with square pastels like Art Spectrum or Terry Ludwig .

Blending soft pastel

Soft pastels are a blendable medium. As soon as you draw with one colour over another, the hues will start mixing and blending onto one another. It’s possible to achieve soft smoky effects and smooth gradients if you use the right tool. Blend with fingers or a brush. These pastel blending brushes have been made for the purpose of using with the blending technique. The bristles are ultra soft and compact, giving artists the ability to create subtle, smooth blends.

Another great tool you can use for blending is these Sofft tools . The dense sponges are attached to a palette knife style application. Use it to blend pastel into the paper. Or use it to apply the pastel to the paper, by picking up colour from the pastel first by running the sponge over the top. Contrary to using brushes which can brush a lot of pastel dust off of the surface, Sofft sponge tools press the pastel into the paper, fixing it in place.

Dusting soft pastel technique

Scrape the pastel with your nail or a knife onto the paper to create small dust specks. This technique is perfect for when you need to create texture on the surface. It can be used to create the impression of ocean spray, snow or stars in a galaxy. In addition to scraping the pastel, you will need to press the dust into the paper to make it adhere to the surface. To do this, get some tracing paper or glassine paper, cover the area where you have created the dust and press. To see this technique in action, check out our wave pastel painting tutorial.

What supplies do you need for soft pastel drawing?

A set of soft pastels will not cost as much as a set of oil paints, but they are a little more expensive than oil pastels. However, you don’t need many supplies to get started! All you really need is a few different pastel colours, some paper and you’re ready to go.

Soft pastels

The best soft pastels are pigment rich and are made from a quality binder. Often the pastels that use the finest materials are on the more expensive end of the spectrum and are more difficult to learn to use. This is because they are made to be extra soft. For a comprehensive review of different brands, see our soft pastel review .

Sennelier soft pastels

See the Sennelier Pastel Sets

These pastels are professional quality and feel luxurious to use. These soft pastels are on the soft side, so may feel challenging to use at first for a complete beginner due to their delicate nature. Sennelier makes 525 highly pigmented colours that start at $38.32 for a set of 20 half sticks at the time of writing. This is a brilliant option for the serious beginner that wants to invest a bit more in using an archival quality product, to improve their skills and start making professional quality work quickly.

Unison Handmade Pastels - Starter Colors, Set of 36, Full Stick

See Unison soft pastel sets

Unison is a brand also aimed at professional artists, but anyone interested in pastel art should know about this brand! The beautifully smooth, buttery soft pastels are on the expensive side, but are well worth it for the intense and vivid results that can be achieved. Each pastel is hand rolled and the sets they make are fabulously curated based on colours and subject. For example, they have a wonderful landscape set, a portrait set, a starter and many more.

This brand would suit a beginner interested in more luxury art materials. Starting with a set of archival quality pastels will allow you to develop your skills much faster, with a higher pigment content, they are more blendable. You can buy these pastels individually too, if you want to test them out before committing to a full set.

Rembrandt Soft Pastel Set - Assorted Colors, Half Sticks, Wood Box, Set of 30

See Rembrandt soft pastel sets

These pastels are fantastically vibrant, but they are also the budget option. Less expensive than other varieties of soft pastel, Rembrandt pastels are harder than all other soft pastels available. This actually makes them easier to use for total beginners who aren’t used to the delicate nature of soft pastels. With higher quality soft pastels, a lighter touch is required to make marks, however with Rembrandt soft pastels, you can apply slightly more pressure until you get used to using a light touch.

The best surfaces for soft pastel drawing will have ‘tooth’, or surface texture. The tooth of the paper allows pastel to adhere properly and to be layered. Pastelmat is thick like card (360gsm) and has a velvet-like surface made from cellulose fibres that provide the tooth that soft pastel needs to stick. Create multiple layers on Pastelmat paper, without the need for fixative. It has some unique properties and is acid-free. It being archival quality, means that you can frame it and keep it for years to come, or sell it.

Ampersand Pastelbord has a thick sanded surface with tooth that soft pastels adhere to wonderfully. Create multiple layered drawings on the museum quality clay and gesso coated surface.

Pastel has a tendency to move and if you brush against it, it could rub off some surfaces. The way to prevent this from happening is by using a soft pastel fixative .

Spray the surface with fixative when you have finished your soft pastel painting to protect it from moisture and smudging. Some fixatives will also protect artworks from UV, but check the product description first to find out the properties of the fixative you are using. It’s advisable to spray fixative on a piece if you’re thinking of packing and shipping your pastel painting, as it may move around a lot during the journey.

It’s possible to spray fixative between layers, if you want to create separate layers and prevent colours from mixing into one another. Again make sure that the fixative you’re using allows you to fix colours in place throughout the drawing process. Winsor & Newton’s professional fixative is workable, so you can apply pastel on top of it. When using the fixative in between layers, make sure to only use the tiniest amount. If you spray too much fixative onto the surface it can become slick, not allowing any more pastel to adhere.

By using a purpose-made surface for pastel drawing like Pastelmat , you can reduce the need for fixative. Fixative alters the colours of pastel drawings slightly, so when using it, don’t use too much. By using Pastelmat, you can retain the brightness and vibrancy of the pastel.

What are the properties of soft pastels?

Soft pastel brands range in softness. The softest brands, such as Schmincke and Sennelier are incredibly buttery and delicate. They require the lightest touch to release pigment onto the surface.

The binding ingredients of soft pastel can include chalk and gum arabic. Some brands will make their soft pastels with marble dust and clay. The dry nature of the pastels can make them crumbly and dusty. This is something you won’t experience as much with oil pastels which feel more sturdy.

Soft pastels are often round in shape and a few brands are made in a square format. With extra soft, circular pastels it can be difficult for beginners to get used to drawing fine details. If you prefer to draw details, try the Art Spectrum or Terry Ludwig pastels . Both have square shaped ends so you can draw details with the corners. Plus both are medium soft, so they won’t wear down as quickly.

Soft pastel never fully dries; they remain open and workable unless a fixative is applied. So you could leave a soft pastel drawing for months, come back to it, and colours will continue to blend into one another.

Colour mixing

If you have a large set of pastels, you won’t need to do as much colour mixing as if you had a smaller set. Tint colours by mixing white over the top, or deepen colours by mixing burnt umber, or a tone of the same hue. To neutralise a colour, lightly layer either burnt umber or the complementary colour over the top.

Learn about colour theory to understand more deeply how to combine colours elegantly to make new shades and tones. To create a full chromatic range of colours in an artwork, you only really need the primaries. They will mix and combine to make secondary and tertiary colours. However, especially with the pastel medium, it’s useful to have extra sticks of colour, especially the tones you use most often to speed up the drawing process.

You don’t need to over blend when mixing colours. Layer colours on top of one another by lightly dragging the pastel (scumble) where you want colours to be altered. This will create a textural effect, where both colours sit alongside each other, not physically blended. However, when you step back from the artwork, the colours will appear optically blended. This is a technique used by impressionist artists to create vibrant contrasts. Over mixing colours can dull pigments down and start to appear ‘muddy’ more quickly.

Layering soft pastels

Mix colours by layering pastels on top of one another.

Different artists will approach layering differently. One method is to start by lightly blocking in mid tone colours, then gradually altering the layers to increase contrast and saturation. The reason to start with a light touch is so that the tooth of the paper doesn’t fill up too quickly. The final stage of the drawing will be the highlights and the details.

Pastel paintings can be completed in multiple layers, so if you anticipate that you will be using lots of colour layers in your drawing, you can start with a harder pastel, such as Rembrandt . Softer pastel should be layered on top of harder pastels. By layering hard pastel first, it will leave more room in the tooth of the paper for colours to be altered with soft pastel.

Make sure you’re working with a pastel paper that will accommodate multiple colour layers, like Pastelmat .

How to set up your workspace for pastel painting

Paint vertically.

It’s possible to paint upright, or flat with soft pastel. However, when artists paint flat, they may find that pastel dust pools on the paper, collecting and smudging across the artwork. To prevent this from happening, prop the artwork upright. For example you could draw vertically on an easel, like a table easel , drawing table or studio easel . This way, pastel dust will collect beneath the drawing instead of on the artwork. Put a dust cover beneath the easel to prevent your floor or table from getting dusty.

Stabilise the paper with a backing board

To paint on an easel, with pastel paper, stabilise the paper with a backing board. Get a piece of MDF, wood or board that is larger than your paper. Then using masking tape, fix the four edges of the paper to the board. This way, you can use more gestural drawing techniques without worrying about the paper being damaged.

By using Pastelbord , you can avoid having to tape the surface to a separate board, as it has enough surface stability to be propped up at an easel by itself.

Mask the edges

Another benefit to setting a pastel painting up by masking edges, is that you get a clean edge around the drawing. Having a clean border can make a pastel piece look more presentable and attractive.

What effects can you achieve with soft pastel?

Because soft pastel is so soft and pigmented, it is conducive to creating vibrant, expressive, loose, painterly works. However, the edges of soft pastel can be used to create detail. So if realism is your style, you will be able to blend realistic gradations, soft edges, using life like tones and shades.

Soft pastel is versatile, so depending on the techniques and approaches you choose and the time invested in the painting, you will be able to achieve a great variety of different effects.

How to erase soft pastel

Erasing soft pastel isn’t the easiest of tasks. It’s much easier to lift light and faint lines, so make sure to start a drawing with the lightest pressure. Test colours and colour mixes on a scrap piece of paper if you’re not sure of colour combinations before committing to applying them to your final piece. Prevent mistakes from happening by avoiding going in with dark heavy marks too soon.

The first step in erasing pastel is to brush excess pastel dust off the paper. Use a relatively springy brush, like a synthetic brush for this action. If the pastel is particularly thick on the paper, get a stiffer brush, such as an old bristle brush to remove excess. This works to remove the particles of pastel that are resting on the top of the paper.

Dense sponges, like cosmetic sponges also work to remove excess pastel without damaging the paper. Kneadable erasers are a great option too, because they lift pastel without being too harsh on the paper. You can use a combination of these erasing techniques together or on their own. If you use a hard eraser, you may inadvertently remove the tooth from the pastel paper, which would make future layering difficult.

Another option is to use a workable fixative, like Winsor & Newton’s fixative to spray over the mistake. Then work over it by creating a separate colour layer. This works to cover mistakes, not erase them from the paper. But there should be no trace of the mistake beneath.

What’s the difference between soft pastels and oil pastels?

Soft pastels are a little more expensive than oil pastels and they have different properties. Oil pastels are made from pigments mixed with oil and wax binders. Soft pastels are made from a mix of chalk, gum arabic and sometimes other binders such as marble dust.

In their performance, soft pastels are generally more soft, more pigmented in appearance, drier, dustier and more crumbly. Soft pastels feel luxurious to use and can lend themselves to expressive mark making techniques and vibrant colour combinations. To read a more in depth review, check out our soft pastel vs oil pastel guide.

Soft pastel mixed media

In mixed media applications, soft pastel really shines! Use pastel over watercolour, gouache or matte acrylic. If applying pastel on watercolour paper instead of pastel paper, you may be more limited with the amount of layers you can add.

Using soft pastel with oil paints, oil pastels and wax medium will not create artworks with longevity. This is because when applied on top of oil or wax, the soft pastels will not adhere properly. If you try to paint or draw with oil or wax over soft pastel, you may scratch the soft pastel from the paper.

Soft pastel inspiration

Zaria Lyn Foreman creates soft pastel paintings of glaciers, icebergs and glassy antarctic waterscapes to portray the urgency of climate change by showing people the “beauty of what we stand to lose”. Zaria paints with Unison soft pastels ; Unison developed a set of ocean blue pastels in collaboration with her.

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4 thoughts on “Soft Pastel for Beginners: How to Draw with Soft Pastel”

Thank you. Lots of information packed in it. The reviews of different soft pastels are extremely helpful.

I just watched the video, and it is great to see you do a drawing from start to finish! I just took my first beginning class for pastels (after not taking any classes in over 30 years in art), and the instructor showed 5 pastel techniques, said a bit about composition, movement etc, then told us to practice these elements. I had no idea how to start, or what to draw. It is good to see how one starts, and progresses. I just sat and looked at the paper, had no idea where to start. Made a mess, but I guess we start somewhere. Thanks!

Your guide to soft pastels has been invaluable in my artistic endeavors. Thanks to your guidance on techniques and blending, my paintings have come to life.

This was the most comprehensive and informative article! ! I used soft pastels years ago. I didn’t have a clue! After reading your work I’m a little intimidated about all this !

8 World-Famous Artists Who Were Drawn to Working in Pastel

This post may contain affiliate links. If you make a purchase, My Modern Met may earn an affiliate commission. Please read our disclosure for more info.

When you think of great artists like Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Pablo Picasso , chances are their works on canvas come to mind. However, most of art history's master painters dabbled in more than just oils and acrylics . In fact, many had a penchant for pastel .

Whether used to sketch preliminary studies or create polished masterpieces, pastel has played a big role in many painters' practices. Here, we take a look at the ways in which some of the world's most famous artists have employed the medium throughout art history, and how they've helped shape the practice as we know it today.

Some of the most prolific painters in art history have also worked in pastels. Scroll down to discover this other section of their portfolio.

Eugène delacroix.

Eugène Delacroix, “Sketch for The Death of Sardanapalus,” (ca. 1827) (Photo: Wikimedia Commons Public Domain)

Romantic artist Eugène Delacroix is renowned for his larger-than-life paintings bursting with drama. Before he applied paint to canvas, however, he often created pastel drawings in order to map out his compositions, test different tones, and perfect his figures.

Crafting studies—like his sketch for The Death of Sardanapalus , one of his most well-known works—aided Delacroix in his art. He notes, however, that transforming a simple drawing into a painting packed with detail was not without its challenges.

“The original idea, the sketch, which is so to speak the egg or embryo of the idea, is usually far from being complete; it contains everything, which is simply a mixing together of all parts. Just the thing that makes of this sketch the essential expression of the idea is not the suppression of details, but their complete subordination to the big lines, which are, before all else, to create the impression. The greatest difficulty therefore is that of returning in the picture to that effacing of the details which, however, make up the composition, the web and the woof of the picture.” ( Artists on Art: From the 14th to the 20th Centuries )

Jean-François Millet

Jean-Francois Millet, “Dandelions,” ca. 1867-1868 (Photo: Wikimedia Commons Public Domain)

As a key figure of the Realist Movement , Jean-François Millet preferred featuring working class people in his paintings. After all, he noted : “Peasant subjects suit my nature best, for I must confess . . . that the human side is what touches me most in art.”

Like Delacroix, Millet would often employ pastel to sketch out ideas for his “peasant paintings.” However, he would also use the medium to create delicate drawings of nature, including sunlit landscapes, quiet seascapes, and enchanting studies of flora, like his whimsical Dandelions .

“Millet excelled in the medium of pastel,” the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, explains , “and his skill as a draftsman and colorist are evident here in the rich variety of greens that set off the flowers and in the airy delicacy of the dandelions, which are shown in all phases from bud to seed.”

Pierre-Auguste Renoir

Pierre-Auguste Renoir, “Boating Couple,” ca. 1881 (Photo: Wikimedia Commons Public Domain)

Impressionist Pierre-Auguste Renoir was drawn to pastel—and for good reason. In his oil paintings, Renoir applied a soft touch that culminated in hazy strokes and blended colors, making the medium a perfect fit for the French artist .

Renoir first explored the medium in the middle of the 1870s. While he regularly exhibited his works in pastel (along with six paintings, he included one pastel in the first Impressionist Exhibition in 1874), he typically reserved this medium for personal depictions of friends and family, as it enabled him to craft authentic portraits of those he cared about the most.

François Daulte, a Swiss Art critic, explains : “If he frequently used that medium to depict those near and dear to him, it was because pastel, which combines color with line, gave him the possibility of working rapidly to capture in all their vividness the rapid flash of intelligence and the fleeting show of emotion.”

Edgar Degas

Edgar Degas, “The Star,” ca. 1876-1878 (Photo: Wikimedia Commons Public Domain)

Having created over 700 pastel drawings, Impressionist Edgar Degas is one of the most prolific pastel artists. While he initially turned to the medium out of necessity (there had always been a market for his small drawings), he eventually grew to prefer pastels for the experimental capabilities of their colors.

“Aware that some pastel colorants fade when exposed to light, Degas put his pastels out in the sun to bleach fugitive colorants out of them before he used them,” the Phillips Collection says . “He often used pastel moistened with water and mixed with an adhesive such as casein, creating a kind of pastel paste that gave the appearance of paint applied with a brush. He even selectively moistened pastel passages with steam or a spray of boiling water and then extended the dissolved pastel with a brush into a translucent layer of color or pastel paste.”

These color tests culminated in the one-of-a-kind palettes evident in some of his most well-known pastels, including his voyeuristic views of bathers and scenes of ballet dancers on stage.

Mary Cassatt

Mary Cassatt, “At the Window,” 1889 (Photo: Wikimedia Commons Public Domain)

Like Degas, fellow Impressionist Mary Cassatt pushed pastel drawing to its limits. In fact, Degas' experimental drawings are what first attracted Cassatt to the medium, as she explained : “I used to go and flatten my nose against that window and absorb all I could of his [Degas'] art. It changed my life. I saw art then as I wanted to see it.”

Though initially inspired by Degas, Cassatt eventually developed a distinctive style that was entirely her own. With mothers and children as her signature subjects, Cassatt would craft portraits that paradoxically explored quiet moments through vivid palettes and energetic strokes—qualities inherent to the pastel medium.

“For Cassatt, the medium's modernist appeal rested on several aesthetic factors closely tied to its material properties,” the Metropolitan Museum of Art notes . “Among these properties were speed of execution, a vast array of ready-made colors, and ready adaptability to draftsmanly and broad painterly handling.”

Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, “The Salon in the Rue des Moulins,” 1894 (Photo: Wiki Art Public Domain)

Post-Impressionist Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec was another artist deeply affected by Degas' pastels. Namely, he was inspired by his approach to portraying women : “without their frills” and viewed as though the artist was “peeping through the keyhole.”

This influence is particularly evident in Toulouse-Lautrec's scenes set in brothels. A far cry from his polished posters celebrating Paris' star-studded nightlife, these intimate drawings offer viewers an unadulterated glimpse into the capital city's most vulnerable. In some drawings, the women are shown standing in line for very public health check-ups; in others, they're shown lounging around communal spaces within the brothels.

In any case, Toulouse-Lautrec sought to capture an authentic glimpse of life behind closed doors. “I don't comment,” he said . “I record.”

Pablo Picasso

Pablo Picasso, “Head of a woman,” 1921 (Photo: Wikimedia Commons Public Domain)

Modernist master Pablo Picasso wore many artistic hats. While he is predominantly known for his stylistic paintings, avant-garde sculptures, and even collage work , he also dabbled in professional-grade oil pastel—an implement he himself helped pioneer.

While oil pastels had been on the market since 1925, they were typically low in quality and intended for younger artists and students. In 1949, Picasso—seeking a high-quality version that could be used on a variety of surfaces—approached his friend and fellow painter Henri Goetz with a request: ask art supply manufacturer Henri Sennelier to create a new and improved oil pastel.

The Sommelier shop created and started selling their famous oil pastels shortly after this meeting, and the rest is history.

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8 World-Famous Artists Who Were Drawn to Working in Pastel

This post may contain affiliate links. If you make a purchase, My Modern Met may earn an affiliate commission. Please read our disclosure for more info.

When you think of great artists like Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Pablo Picasso , chances are their works on canvas come to mind. However, most of art history’s master painters dabbled in more than just oils and acrylics . In fact, many had a penchant for pastel .

Listen beautiful relax classics on our Youtube channel .

Whether used to sketch preliminary studies or create polished masterpieces, pastel has played a big role in many painters’ practices. Here, we take a look at the ways in which some of the world’s most famous artists have employed the medium throughout art history, and how they’ve helped shape the practice as we know it today.

Some of the most prolific painters in art history have also worked in pastels. Scroll down to discover this other section of their portfolio.

Eugène delacroix.

Eugène Delacroix, “Sketch for The Death of Sardanapalus,” (ca. 1827) (Photo: Wikimedia Commons Public Domain)

Jean-François Millet

Jean-Francois Millet, “Dandelions,” ca. 1867-1868 (Photo: Wikimedia Commons Public Domain)

Pierre-Auguste Renoir

Pierre-Auguste Renoir, “Boating Couple,” ca. 1881 (Photo: Wikimedia Commons Public Domain)

Edgar Degas

Edgar Degas, “The Star,” ca. 1876-1878 (Photo: Wikimedia Commons Public Domain)

These color tests culminated in the one-of-a-kind palettes evident in some of his most well-known pastels, including his voyeuristic views of bathers and scenes of ballet dancers on stage.

Mary Cassatt

Mary Cassatt, “At the Window,” 1889 (Photo: Wikimedia Commons Public Domain)

Like Degas, fellow Impressionist Mary Cassatt pushed pastel drawing to its limits. In fact, Degas’ experimental drawings are what first attracted Cassatt to the medium, as she explained : “I used to go and flatten my nose against that window and absorb all I could of his [Degas’] art. It changed my life. I saw art then as I wanted to see it.”

“For Cassatt, the medium’s modernist appeal rested on several aesthetic factors closely tied to its material properties,” the Metropolitan Museum of Art notes . “Among these properties were speed of execution, a vast array of ready-made colors, and ready adaptability to draftsmanly and broad painterly handling.”

Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, “The Salon in the Rue des Moulins,” 1894 (Photo: Wiki Art Public Domain)

Post-Impressionist Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec was another artist deeply affected by Degas’ pastels. Namely, he was inspired by his approach to portraying women : “without their frills” and viewed as though the artist was “peeping through the keyhole.”

This influence is particularly evident in Toulouse-Lautrec’s scenes set in brothels. A far cry from his polished posters celebrating Paris’ star-studded nightlife, these intimate drawings offer viewers an unadulterated glimpse into the capital city’s most vulnerable. In some drawings, the women are shown standing in line for very public health check-ups; in others, they’re shown lounging around communal spaces within the brothels.

In any case, Toulouse-Lautrec sought to capture an authentic glimpse of life behind closed doors. “I don’t comment,” he said . “I record.”

Pablo Picasso

Pablo Picasso, “Head of a woman,” 1921 (Photo: Wikimedia Commons Public Domain)

The Sommelier shop created and started selling their famous oil pastels shortly after this meeting, and the rest is history.

Fascinating Paintings Reveal the Unique Studios of 5 Famous Artists

8 Real-Life Locations of Famous Paintings You Can Visit Today

8 Iconic Artists and the Inspiration Behind Their Favorite Subjects

The post 8 World-Famous Artists Who Were Drawn to Working in Pastel appeared first on My Modern Met .

Source: mymodernmet.com

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The Vibrant World of Oil Pastel Painting: Experimentation and Expression

Table of content:.

The History of Oil Pastels

The Experimental Potential of Oil Pastels

Abstract Art and Oil Pastels

Oil pastels emerged at a time when many artists were interested in innovative mediums for their creative practices. Their invention is attributed to Japanese artist Kanae Yamamoto and teachers Rinzo Satake and Shuku Sasaki, who created the Sakura Cray-Pas Company in the 1920s. They were sp ecifically formulated to possess non-toxic properties akin to crayons, making them suitable for children. Remarkably, Cray-Pas has maintained an enduring presence in educational settings, commonly stocked in contemporary classrooms.

The subsequent advancement of oil pastels occurred nearly three decades later, when Henri Sennelier created a higher-end version. This was in response to none other than renowned artist Pablo Picasso , who requested a superior variant of artist-grade oil pastels. Picasso and other artists were intrigued by the accessibility of Cray-Pas, yet wanted a product up to their standards. Specifically, they sought a portable medium that could replicate the expressive qualities of oil painting. Sennelier’s oil pastels allowed artists to achieve such desired painterly effects. Its blending capabilities allowed a range of textures and effects, from smooth and velvety to bold and impasto-like. Its form also made it portable, less messy and easier to travel with than traditional paints. These appealing factors made oil pastels an unsurprisingly commercial success.

Artists can employ various methods to explore the medium's full potential. Oil pastels offer a tactile experience, enabling artists to directly feel the textures they create on the canvas. Artists can experiment with different surfaces, including canvas, paper, wood, or even unconventional materials, such as glass, pushing the boundaries of traditional painting. The versatility of oil pastels also enables artists to combine them with other mediums, such as watercolor, ink, or acrylic, exploring new hybrids of artistic expression.

Abstract art , with its emphasis on shapes, colors, and forms detached from realistic representation, finds a natural affinity with oil pastels. The intense hues and material nature of oil pastels allow artists to create abstract compositions that evoke emotions, memories, and perceptions. Artists can employ broad strokes, delicate contours, or even use their fingers to blend and smudge colors, creating a fusion of shades. Fluidity of lines, the interplay of shades, and the juxtaposition of shapes are enhanced by the medium's unique texture. The ability to either layer or merge oil pastels enables artists to experiment with different transparencies, creating depth and dimension within their abstract compositions. Moreover, the tactile nature of oil pastels allows artists to incorporate texture into their abstract artworks. Artists can scratch into surfaces or apply oil pastels thickly to create crevices. This versatility enables artists to explore not only the visual aspects of abstract art but also its textural and sensory qualities.

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Published: 24 August 2020

Mixing, dipping, and fixing: the experimental drawing techniques of Thomas Gainsborough

Federica Pozzi ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8174-2684 1 ,
Julie Arslanoglu 1 ,
Francesca Galluzzi 2 ,
Caroline Tokarski 2 &
Reba Snyder 3

Heritage Science volume 8 , Article number: 85 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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The Morgan Library & Museum, New York, owns twenty-five works on paper by the 18th-century English artist Thomas Gainsborough. Scholarly publications over the past 20 years, as well as Gainsborough’s own writings, have highlighted his proclivity toward innovative methods and experimentation. In particular, a letter that the artist wrote in 1773 reveals details of his secret recipe for making oils on paper, such as his recommended use of lead white and the unorthodox practice of dipping his works in skim milk, possibly to prevent the pigments from discoloring. About a dozen of Gainsborough’s creations were included in a 2018 exhibition at The Morgan entitled Thomas Gainsborough: Experiments in Drawing . On this occasion, an in-depth scientific study aimed to explore the artist’s work as a draftsman, with a special focus on his mastery of materials, his technical innovations, and his development of an original approach to drawing. Initially, a selection of artworks was examined using magnification along with transmitted and raking light to improve surface visualization and to investigate the structure of each piece. Further photographic documentation with ultraviolet and infrared light was performed to gather preliminary information on the variety of white pigments employed, on the wet and dry chalk techniques used in certain works, as well as on the possible presence of coatings and underdrawings. Subsequently, scientific analysis by means of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and Raman spectroscopies aimed at characterizing the white pigments present in The Morgan’s drawings, which mostly consisted of calcite and lead white. Moreover, a combination of advanced micro-sampling tools, i.e. polyvinyl chloride (PVC)-free erasers and fine polishing films, ad - hoc sample preparation methods, highly sensitive proteomics analysis via nano-liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (nano-LC/MS), and sophisticated bioinformatics data processing was employed to assess Gainsborough’s use of skim milk as a “secret fixative” on some of his works. Results have revealed the presence of specifically bovine milk in all of the samples evaluated to date. Notably, only through the combined use of such advanced technical resources can the interrogation of all milk proteins retrieved from the samples provide evidence for the presence of a milk fixative and open the discussion about milk processing methods in the 18th century. In addition to granting conservators and art historians a deeper understanding of the complexity of Gainsborough’s drawing techniques, this study paves the way for further investigations to probe the use of casein-based fixatives by other artists working on paper such as Degas and Van Gogh.

Introduction

Celebrated in his lifetime as an outstanding artist and renowned painter of portrait and rural landscapes, Thomas Gainsborough (1727–1788) is a central figure in the history of British art and, more generally, of 18th-century art. Although most famous for his portraits and romantic landscape paintings, Gainsborough was also a prolific draftsman, with over 900 of his drawings presently known. As most artists of his generation, Gainsborough did not draw directly from nature; instead, he composed landscapes in his studio, relying on his sketches but also laying out stones, branches, leaves, and soil of various colors on his work table to recreate an ideal scene. This practice allowed him to experiment with materials and create dramatic scenes using multiple media on paper, such as graphite, chalk, charcoal, oil, watercolor, and pastel.

The Morgan Library & Museum, New York, owns twenty-five works on paper by Gainsborough, including highly completed landscape studies, an unfinished oil sketch, and a rare preparatory study for a painting (Fig. 1 ). About a dozen of these artworks were included in an exhibition entitled Thomas Gainsborough: Experiments in Drawing , which was held from May 11th to August 19th, 2018. A small catalogue that contains updated descriptions of The Morgan’s works, as well as a technical study of Gainsborough’s materials and techniques as observed in The Morgan’s collection, accompanied the exhibition [ 1 ].

Example of Gainsborough drawing analyzed in this study. Thomas Gainsborough (1727–1788). Hilly Landscape with Cows on the Road , The Morgan Library & Museum, III, 62. Photography by Steven H. Crossot, 2014

Conservation and art historical publications over the past 20 years have clearly demonstrated that Gainsborough was an innovative and experimental artist, having developed some unique drawing and painting methods during the decades of his career. By disrupting the traditional canons of drawing, he created real “experiments on paper” in which the landscape is key to creating original visual effects, each time different, to refine new techniques, and to investigate a new approach to art on paper. A crucial source of information about Gainsborough’s singular working process is a letter, held at the Yale Center for British Art, which the artist addressed to his friend William Jackson in January 1773. In this letter, Gainsborough shared a brief account of his complex, extremely secret recipe for making oils on paper, using unorthodox technical solutions that subverted the academic principles of contemporary practice. The significance of this document for The Morgan drawings lies in the artist’s documented use of certain white pigments and his process of intricate layering of various media and fixatives. According to Gainsborough’s recipe, this type of drawing is created using lead white ( “your lights of Bristol - made white lead which you buy in lumps at any house painters” ). The paper sheet is then allegedly immersed multiple times in milk ( “dip it all over in skim’d milk” ), possibly to protect the pigments from discoloring, and adhered while wet to a temporary wooden frame or stretcher lined with paper. After the addition of supplementary light and dark layers as necessary, the drawing is dipped again in milk. Colors are then added, and gum Arabic glazing reported to be applied ( “float it all over with Gum water, 3 ounces of Gum Arabic to a pint of water” ). Finally, the piece is varnished on both sides to keep it flat ( “let that dry & varnish it 3 times with Spirit Varnish” ), after which the paper is removed from the strainer and mounted. Gainsborough’s description of his secret recipe for making these works ends with a theatrical sign off: “Swear now never to impart my secret to anyone living” .

The Morgan’s 2018 exhibition provided an impetus to undertake an in-depth technical study of Gainsborough’s works for inclusion in the associated catalogue. Initially, a selection of his drawings housed at The Morgan Library were inspected using magnification along with different types of illumination, including transmitted and raking light, in order to better visualize the artworks’ surface and appreciate the structure of each piece. Further photographic documentation and examination with ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR) light were carried out in an attempt to gain insight into Gainsborough’s working methods, with a special focus on the possible application of coatings and the presence of underdrawings. In a second phase of this project, scientific analysis with both non-invasive and micro-invasive instrumental techniques aimed at characterizing the different white pigments found on the artist’s works, as well as his potential use of fixatives. Identification of the white pigments was performed non-invasively by means of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy and, upon careful removal of a few microscopic samples, with a benchtop Raman spectrometer. On the other hand, the detection and characterization of milk-based fixatives on Gainsborough’s drawings was accomplished using minimally invasive sampling techniques, such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC)-free erasers and fine polishing films, combined with proteomics analysis via nano-liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (nano-LC-ESI-MS/MS, henceforth referred to as nano-LC/MS).

Typically, the very thin layers of nearly invisible coatings or fixatives that might be present on a drawing cannot be identified using traditional analytical approaches such as Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, because a clean sample would be extremely difficult to isolate and the residues of paper substrate that are carried along would likely mask any signal from the target analytes. Similarly, protein analysis via gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) poses a great challenge, as the extensive sampling required in order to gather a sufficient amount of material would not be considered safe for the artwork. The present study, on the other hand, demonstrates that the combined use of minimally destructive micro-sampling methods [ 2 ], allowing safe sampling of the drawings, with trace-compatible sample preparation protocols, highly sensitive analytical techniques, and sophisticated bioinformatics data processing enables to achieve high levels of sensitivity and accuracy in the collection and interpretation of results [ 3 ]. Only thanks to the implementation of such multi-step methodology can the interrogation of all milk proteins retrieved from the samples provide evidence for the presence of a milk fixative and open the discussion about milk processing methods in the 18th century. In addition to granting conservators and art historians a deeper understanding of the complexity of Gainsborough’s drawing techniques, this work paves the way for further investigations aiming to probe the use of casein-based fixatives by other artists working on paper such as Degas and Van Gogh.

Experimental

XRF Analysis was performed using a handheld Bruker Tracer III-V TM energy dispersive XRF analyzer, with Peltier-cooled advanced high-resolution silver-free Si-PIN detector with a 0.2-μm beryllium (Be) window and average resolution of approximately 142 eV for the full width at half maximum of the manganese (Mn) Kα line. The system is equipped with changeable filters, and a rhodium (Rh) transmission target with maximum voltage of 45 kV and tunable beam current of 2–30 µA. The size of the spot analyzed is approximately 3 × 4 mm. Analysis was performed using 40 kV, 30 µA, 180-s acquisition time, and a titanium (Ti)-aluminum (Al) filter, by positioning the instrument at a ≈ 1-mm distance from the artwork’s surface.

Raman Analysis was conducted using a Bruker Senterra Raman spectrometer equipped with Olympus 20× and 50× long working distance microscope objectives and a charge-coupled device (CCD) detector. A continuous wave diode laser, emitting light at 785 nm, was used as the excitation source, and two holographic gratings (1800 and 1200 rulings/mm) provided a spectral resolution of 3–5 cm −1 . The output laser power was kept between 10 and 25 mW, while the number of scans and integration time were adjusted to prevent damage from overheating and according to the Raman response of the samples examined. Spectra were interpreted by comparison with published literature and library databases available at The Met.

Visual examination Visual examination of the artworks was performed using a Nikon SMZ-1270 stereo zoom microscope with 6.3–80× zoom range, equipped with stops and 0.5× lens. Examination under UV light was carried out by means of light model Q-22B, with peak intensity at 6”—1200 μW/cm 2 . A Fuji IS Pro Digital camera with Forensic Zeiss lens kit, Peca #916 and Wrattan 2E filters, was used to collect UVA-induced visible fluorescence photographs. Illumination was provided by CFL BLB bulbs working at 13 W and 120 V. IR photography was performed using a Pixelteq Spectrocam SWIR camera system including RAPTOR 320 × 256, a filter wheel, and a Coastal Optic 60-mm lens; all IR images were captured using a 1332-nm filter.

Sampling and sample preparation for nano - LC/MS Sampling of the Gainsborough drawings was performed following a protocol described by Kirby and coauthors, in which the use of both PVC-free erasers and fine polishing films was first demonstrated on photographs [ 2 ]. In detail, PVC-free erasers (Staedtler, 525 B) were cut into small blocks of approximately 3–5 mm and held with tweezers for rubbing under the microscope. Small discs of 5–6 mm in diameter were cut from fiber optic polishing film discs with aluminum oxide (Precision Fiber Products) of 6- and 15-μm grits. These discs were adhered to polystyrene rods of varying diameter (Walther) and held in a nickel Starette Pin Vise (Grainger) for rubbing under the microscope (Fig. 2 ). Rubbing duration and pressure varied for each sample until the deposition of material could be observed on the eraser or fine polishing film (appearing as surface grime or as a grayish/whitish residue, respectively). Microscopic examination of the works’ surface after sampling did not show any evidence of surface disruption or media loss. Based on a treatment method previously developed by some of the authors of this article [ 3 ], including the adoption of filter-aided sample preparation [ 4 ], erasers and fine polishing films were handled as follows prior to nano-LC/MS analysis: upon sampling, these protein-trapping supports were placed in a lysis buffer containing 4% sodium dodecyl sulfate, 8 M urea, 0.2% deoxycholic acid, and 50 mM dithiothreitol. After washing, alkylation was induced by adding 55 mM iodoacetamide. Buffer was then exchanged to 50 mM ammonium bicarbonate and 0.2% deoxycholic acid (pH 8.8) for digestion with trypsin and lysC enzymes. Liquid-liquid extraction was performed using ethyl acetate, while trifluoroacetic acid was employed for acidification. Several washing steps were carried out before and after phase transfer. The aqueous phase was then entirely evaporated by means of a speed vacuum system, after which a minimal volume of 0.1% formic acid was added. A list of the artworks’ locations from which samples were retrieved is provided in Table 1 .

Sampling of a drawing for proteomics analysis via nano-LC/MS using fine polishing films

Nano - LC/MS The peptide mixture was analyzed by means of an UltiMate 3000 nano-LC system coupled with an electrospray orbitrap Fusion TM Lumos TM Tribrid TM mass spectrometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, San Jose, California), using (A) 0.1% formic acid and (B) 0.1% formic acid in 80% acetonitrile. 1 μL of peptide digest was initially loaded onto a 5-mm C18 PepMap TM trap column with 300-µm inner diameter (Thermo Fisher Scientific) at a flow rate of 10 µL/min with 0.1% formic acid. Peptides were then eluted from the trap column onto an analytical 50-cm C18 PepMap TM column with 75-mm internal diameter (Thermo Fisher Scientific) with a 4–40% linear gradient of solvent B in 235 min. The elution flow rate for the latter step was set at 300 nL/min. The mass spectrometer operated in positive ion mode at a 1.9-kV needle voltage. Data were acquired using Xcalibur 4.1 software in a data-dependent mode. MS scans were recorded in the m/z 375–1500 range at a resolution of R = 120,000 (at m/z 200), while MS/MS scans were collected in the orbitrap at a resolution of R = 30,000 (at m/z 200). Ions between +2 and +7 charge were selected for high-energy collisional dissociation (HCD) fragmentation. Reference samples, blanks, as well as positive and negative controls were injected and tested alongside the historic samples to prevent contamination and carryover.

MS data processing Raw data files generated from nano-LC/MS spectral acquisition were searched using PEAKS 8.5 software against UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot 2020_02 database and, then, against a restricted UniProt Bos taurus database (Proteome ID UP000009136). Parameters for data analysis were set as follows: 3 missed cleavages maximum; precursor ion error tolerance 10.0 ppm; fragment ion error tolerance 0.02 Da. Carbamidomethylation was set as a fixed modification, while oxidation (methionine, proline), deamidation (asparagine, glutamine), phosphorylation (serine, threonine), and lactosylation (lysine, arginine) were set as variable modifications. Protein false discovery rate (FDR) was set to 0.1% with -10lgP ≥ 18 score threshold for peptides. A manual filter of at least two different non-overlapping peptides was set for protein identification. Data resulting from the injection of positive and negative controls, as well as blanks, were carefully examined prior to injecting the historic samples to verify the possible presence of contaminants or residues from carryover. Reference samples were also used to verify retention times, peak shapes, peptide signal to noise ratio, the occurrence of contaminants resistant to washing, as well as the overall validity of the procedure adopted. For the historic samples, MS/MS spectra of each peptide of interest were inspected manually, and the presence of various peptide species was investigated by searching unknown spectra against the whole nrNCBI database via Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST).

A summary of the results obtained from visual examination, as well as XRF and Raman analysis of a selection of Gainsborough drawings, is provided in Table 1 , along with an indication of the sampling locations for casein-based fixative identification with nano-LC/MS.

Results of XRF and Raman spectroscopy

Identification of the white pigments in a selection of Gainsborough drawings from The Morgan Library holdings was carried out using a combination of in situ, non-invasive XRF analysis and micro-invasive Raman measurements on microscopic samples. Results have shown that, in addition to a prominent use of lead white as described in Gainsborough’s 1773 letter, calcite is also present in white areas and highlights of several works among those examined. The data collected strongly suggest that, in all drawings selected for analysis, these two pigments were used individually. In addition to lead and calcium, indicative of the use of lead white or calcite pigments, XRF spectra display a series of trace elements that are attributable to the paper substrate. In detail, as also summarized in Table 1 , lead white was detected in five drawings that span two decades of the artist’s life. On the oil sketch Landscape with Horse and Cart, and Ruin (1770-75; III, 55) this pigment was likely applied in stick form, while on Landscape with Group of Figures Resting on a Hillside (1770s; III, 60) it is probably present as oil paint. A significant amount of lead white was also identified in the black chalk drawing entitled Wooded Landscape with Horseman, Figures, and Bridge (ca. 1780; III, 61), where it was applied dry and appears to have been covered locally with a liquid material using a brush, perhaps to protect the lead from oxidation. On Wooded Landscape with Cows in a Pool (1780-85; III, 63a) lead white was found in the tiny highlights of the cow, whereas this pigment forms much of the opaque background and all of the highlights in Open Landscape with Drover and Packhorses (1775-80; 2014.32). On the other hand, calcite was mostly detected in works created during the last decade of Gainsborough’s artistic production, for instance, Lady Walking in a Garden (ca. 1785; III, 63b), Hilly Landscape with Cows on the Road (ca. 1780; III, 62), and A Woman with Three Children (1780-85; III, 59). The limited occurrence of calcite in pieces dated to a decade after Gainsborough’s letter of 1773 may attest to an intrinsic evolution in the artist’s choice and use of materials over the course of his career.

Results of visual examination

All the whites, both lead- and calcium-based, appear bright upon visual inspection with normal light. Close examination with transmitted and raking light, as well as UV photography, indicated that overall and selectively applied coatings or fixatives might be present on many of the drawings under study. Both the oil sketch Landscape with Horse and Cart, and Ruin (1770-75; III, 55) and Landscape with Group of Figures Resting on a Hillside (1770s; III, 60) appear to be varnished with a natural resin, which displays fluorescence under UV illumination as frequently observed in traditional paintings, and are in an excellent state of preservation. Interestingly, on Landscape with Horse and Cart Descending a Hill (ca. 1780; III, 63), normal light and UV photography suggested the presence of a deteriorated overall coating with a clean corner, at the upper left, possibly corresponding to the location where the work might have been held by the artist when dipping it in a fixative bath (Fig. 3 ). In Hilly Landscape with Cows on the Road (ca. 1780; III, 62) an overall yellowing might be indicative of the presence of a coating. Careful study of the road in the lower left portion of this drawing, in which only calcite was detected, revealed a complex overlapping of dry black and white chalks, with layers of black and white chalk wash and chalks worked wet. Similar discoloration issues are observed in Wooded Landscape with Cows in a Pool (1780-85; III, 63a), a drawing that contains very limited lead white highlights, while a thin wash, now slightly degraded, was applied locally over the white pigments in Wooded Landscape with Horseman, Figures, and Bridge (ca. 1780; III, 61). None of the latter coatings appeared shiny or reflective, thus the presence of gum Arabic and varnish was not considered likely. In a few works, such as Study of Trees (1750; 2005.82), a more broadly brush-applied liquid material seems to be localized in the image area. Here, the liquid material, characterized by a yellow discoloration, may have been used to deliberately solubilize some of the graphite to create a gray wash and fix it on the surface; while this is not numbered among the traditional uses of graphite, it would be consistent with Gainsborough’s experimental approach to media. In another drawing with extensive lead white watercolor, Open Landscape with Drover and Packhorses (1775-80; 2014.32), no coating was visible under UV or raking light, although the darker paper tone and its rough texture may have masked discoloration. The lack of any conversion of the lead white to lead sulfide, in this piece as well as on Coastal Scene with Figures and Cows (ca. 1780; 2017.89), may suggest the presence of a protective coating. These observations led to formulate a theory according to which Gainsborough may have used his “secret ingredient”, skim milk, on many of his drawings, as a fixative or working medium to manipulate chalk, graphite, and opaque white pigments more easily [ 5 ].

Normal light (left) and UV (right) photographs of a detail from Landscape with Horse and Cart Descending a Hill (ca. 1780; III, 63), suggesting the presence of a deteriorated overall coating with a clean corner, at the upper left, possibly corresponding to the location where the work might have been held by Gainsborough when dipping it in a fixative bath

Results of proteomics analysis

Verification of reported fixatives, i.e. very thin coatings applied to protect or “fix” friable or sensitive artists’ media, is relevant to Gainsborough as well as to many other artists working on paper. While Gainsborough’s innovative methods for making drawings have been of great interest to scholars, obtaining a sufficient amount of sample from the many thin and delicate layers of such fixatives found on his artworks has posed a significant hurdle when using traditional analytical approaches. Indeed, in most cases, well-established instrumental techniques such as FTIR, GC/MS, and pyrolysis-GC/MS are not adequately sensitive for this type of investigations unless a sample of inappropriately large size for cultural heritage artifacts is removed. In the present study, high levels of sensitivity and accuracy in the collection and interpretation of results could only be achieved thanks to the combined use of minimally destructive micro-sampling tools (PVC-free erasers and fine polishing films), advanced sample preparation methods, and highly sensitive analytical techniques (nano-LC/MS), in association with sophisticated bioinformatics data processing. In the literature, the use of erasers for mass spectrometry analysis was first successfully demonstrated in the removal of specimens from parchment [ 6 ]. Kirby and coworkers further expanded the use of erasers for sampling of cultural heritage and introduced polishing films to sample coatings on photographs and works of art on paper [ 2 ].

Proteomic analysis by nano-LC/MS is the only way to manage extremely low sample amounts and, at the same time, address the likelihood of complex sample mixtures. As stated previously, Gainsborough reportedly used a wide range of media, including oil paint, chalks, watercolor, and possible gum Arabic isolating layers, as well as various fixatives and varnishes. As a result, every sample removed from any of his drawings may potentially contain more than one medium, and the amount of material relevant to protein analysis is only a fraction of the total sample collected. Therefore, the use of special sample preparation methodologies tailored to the treatment of the minute quantities of material gathered upon sampling by PVC-free erasers or fine polishing films represents a first, necessary step to isolate the protein fraction contained in the sample and ensure successful analysis. The subsequent application of a proteomic approach, i.e. the digestion of such proteins into peptides, enables all of the proteins to be detected and identified as each peptide sequence can be assigned to a protein by means of bioinformatics softwares.

Methodologically, proteomics, and in particular the so-called “bottom-up” strategy used in this study, is based on four main steps, as follows: (i) Protein extraction from the sample matrix containing organic and/or inorganic components; here, this step was conducted using an adapted filter-aided procedure, as described in the Experimental section. (ii) Controlled hydrolysis of proteins into peptides using one or more enzymes; in the present work, the digestion was performed using trypsin and lysC, i.e. endoproteases that cleave proteins at the carboxyl side of lysine amino acid for both enzymes and of arginine amino acid for trypsin. (iii) Analysis of the resulting peptide mixture by means of an analytical workflow adapted to very low sample amounts; here, through the coupling of nano-LC and high-resolution tandem MS, peptides are purified, separated, amino acid sequences are obtained by the elucidation of fragment ions resulting from the peptide fragmentation spectra and, then, coded to represent their origin (N-terminal charged fragment ions are classed as a, b or c, while the C-terminal charged ones as x, y or z) and length (for example, a 10 amino acid peptide could create fragments y + 1 through y + 10 with the corresponding b ions) [ 7 ]. (iv) MS data processing by means of bioinformatics tools that integrate genomic or protein databases, allowing for the identification of proteins and their modifications.

In the present case, despite the extremely low sample amounts investigated, remarkably high protein sequence coverages were achieved, leading to the unequivocal identification of different milk proteins in all of the samples analyzed, as shown in Table 2 . As a representative example, the results obtained for sample S2C2 from Coastal Scene with Shipping, Figures, and Cows (2017.89) are presented in the following. For this specimen, proteomics analysis revealed high sequence coverage (over 50%) for alpha S1 casein. Spectra display good signal to noise ratios, as well as a well-defined fragmentation pattern characterized by an almost complete y and b ions series from the protein peptides, ensuring unambiguous sequence assignments. The data shown in Fig. 4 , for instance, enables identification of the HQGLPqEVLNENLLR sequence corresponding to the 23–37 peptide of alpha S1 casein. In this spectrum, y + 1 to y + 10 and b + 2 to b + 11 fragment ions are detected; Q28, i.e. glutamine at position 28 of the sequence, referenced in lower case, is deamidated; and variants of deamidation were also identified on positions Q24, N32, and N34, consistently with the fact that this is a common modification in old proteins.

MS/MS spectrum of peptides identified in sample S2C2 from Coastal Scene with Shipping, Figures, and Cows (ca. 1780; 2017.89). The data shows a triply charged ion at m/z 587.6483 (error Δm 0.7 ppm), enabling identification of the 23-37 peptide of alpha S1 casein, which includes one deamidation (Q28). This peptide is indicative of Bovinae subfamily biological origin

Along with alpha S1 casein, ten milk proteins belonging to three main types have been successfully characterized in sample S2C2 [ 8 , 9 ]: (i) caseins, (ii) whey proteins, and (iii) milk fat globule membrane proteins (MFGM), representing about 78%, 17%, and 1–2% of the total bovine milk proteins present, respectively. Belonging to the first group, the alpha S1, alpha S2, beta, and kappa caseins are low molecular weight proteins of 20–25 kDa and are found in cow’s milk in 38%, 10%, 35%, and 12% respective proportions [ 10 ]. Several of these proteins exhibit variants and they are heavily post-translationally modified in protein biosynthesis with varying level of phosphorylation and glycosylation [ 11 ]. As displayed in Table 2 , these four caseins were successfully identified in sample S2C2 from drawing 2017.89 with high sequence coverages. Several of their post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation were also detected and localized, while no lactosylation, a non-enzymatic modification indicating the potential heating treatment of milk, was identified with the current experimental design [ 12 , 13 , 14 ]. As an example of these results, Fig. 5 illustrates the 118–134 sequence of alpha S1 casein, exhibiting a phosphorylation on the serine at position S130 in both reference and historic samples, whereas only a peptide from a reference heated milk sample shows lactosylated K128 and K120 lysine residues; among these graphs, spectrum C corresponds to the 121–134 sequence, indicating a trypsin cleavage of the K120 lysine from sequence 118–134.

a MS/MS spectrum of peptides identified in a reference sample of modern milk. The data shows a triply charged ion at m/z 910.0919 (error Δm 0.9 ppm), enabling identification of the 118–134 peptide of alpha S1 casein, which includes two lactosylations (lower case K118 and K120) and one phosphorylation (S130). b , c MS/MS spectra of peptides identified in sample S2C2 from Coastal Scene with Shipping, Figures, and Cows (ca. 1780; 2017.89). The data shows (B) a triply charged ion at m/z 694.0209 (error Δm 0.5 ppm), enabling identification of the 118-134 peptide of alpha S1 casein, which includes one phosphorylation (S130); and (C) a doubly charged ion at m/z 831.3934 (error Δm 0.8 ppm), enabling identification of the 121-134 peptide of alpha S1 casein, which includes one phosphorylation (S130) and one deamidation (Q123)

The second type of milk proteins found in sample S2C2 from drawing 2017.89 is whey proteins. Among them, several of the most abundant ones, such as beta-lactoglobulin (LGB), bovine serum albumin (BSA), and immunoglobulins (IgG), representing approximately 60%, 10%, and 10% of total whey proteins, respectively [ 10 ], were identified with sequence coverages over 50% for LGB and between 20 and 50% for BSA and IgG. In addition to those, other whey proteins such as serotransferrin and lactoferrin/lactotransferrin were also found in the matching data. Remarkably, one of the typically most abundant whey proteins, namely alpha-lactalbumin, accounting for 20% of total whey proteins, was not detected in the historic samples analyzed. This protein, however, was identified in all the liquid and dry reference samples of modern milk examined with high sequence coverage (over 80%); analysis of reference milk-dipped slides and papers upon micro-sampling with PVC-free erasers and polishing films also yielded positive identification, albeit with lower sequence coverages (between 30 and 40%) compared to what was expected based on the scores obtained for other milk proteins identified. Alpha-lactalbumin is a metal-binding protein and its ability to interact with other organic compounds such as lipids has been the topic of extensive accounts in the literature [ 15 ]. At this stage, the reason for the failed or poor detection of this protein in the Gainsborough samples, compared to other proteins that appear to have similar physicochemical properties or action mechanisms, remains unclear [ 16 , 17 ]. Ongoing research by the authors of this article is currently investigating drawing replicas in an attempt to shed light on the possible mechanisms involved.

The last type of protein identified in sample S2C2 from drawing 2017.89 is represented by MFGM. The structure of MFGM consists of lipid (40%), protein (60%), and cholesterol [ 18 , 19 ]. More accurately, a phospholipid monolayer surrounds the triacylglycerol core, followed by a proteinaceous coat connecting the monolayer to the outer phospholipid bilayer. Glycoproteins such as butyrophilin and lactadherin (milk fat globule-EGF factor 8) are distributed over the external membrane surface. Lactadherin, a 47-kDa protein, was identified in the sample discussed with sequence coverage below 20%. Despite such low score value, in this case, a particularly good spectral quality enabled the unambiguous attribution of five characteristic peptides. Xanthine dehydrogenase/oxidase, a 146-kDa high molecular weight protein located between the outer glycerolphospholipd bilayer and the inner glycerolphospholipid monolayer that surrounds the triacylgrycerol core, was also identified with very low sequence coverage (below 5%) in another sample, namely S2B1, from the same drawing.

The presence of MFGM proteins in all of the historic samples analyzed is difficult to interpret in relation to Gainsborough’s 1773 letter, in which the artist describes his own practice of dipping his drawings specifically in skim milk. In the mid-17th into the 18th century, English dairy and cheese production was distinctly artisanal in character, with very low levels of mechanization. Farmers in the most favored dairying regions, which included the Plain, Somerset, and North Wiltshire, began to commercialize and produce a milk surplus, which, in combination with the advances in the English transportation system, caused farmers to seek non-local markets. London was one of the largest beneficiaries of these developments. Farmers also took advantage of the combination of milk and cheese production. For example, the county of Suffolk had a reputation for high-yielding dairy herds and, since the 16th century, much of the capital’s cheese and butter was supplied via a relatively short coastal passage from ports such as Yarmouth, Woodbridge, and Ipswich. However, since cream from the milk was required for making cheese, and farm cheese dairies were researching ways to utilize the remaining heavily skimmed milk, they employed it to produce an inferior “flet” (i.e. skim) milk cheese [ 20 ].

Due to industrialization and process improvement, modern skim milk is much more efficiently defatted than milk in 18th-century England and, consequently, what was considered to be skim milk three centuries ago may still have contained a certain amount of MFGM [ 21 ]. On the other hand, milk treatment such as cooling, heating, and centrifugation can damage or alter MFGM, causing the release of some membrane-associated proteins from MFGM into the aqueous phase (i.e. skim milk) [ 22 ]. In addition to the factors described above, the size of MFGM also induces differences in protein composition [ 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 ]. Hence, the designation of “skim” milk in the context of 18th-century dairy production is very complex. Further studies are currently underway, including replicating 18th-century milk defatting, to gain knowledge of the milk protein composition that may most closely correspond to 18th-century skim milk.

Most of the peptide sequences detected in the present study are common to several animal species; however, some are indicative of the biological origin of the proteinaceous material under investigation and, therefore, may be used to draw conclusions in that regard. For example, in the case of sample S2C2 from drawing 2017.89, both the 23–37 peptide of the alpha S1 casein displayed in Fig. 4 and the 19–37 peptide with a missed cleavage listed in Table 3 belong to the Bovinae subfamily ( Bos taurus, Bos mutus, Bos indicus, Bos grunniens, Bison bison bison ). Other discriminant peptides from the most abundant proteins identified in this sample, namely alpha S1, alpha S2, and kappa caseins, as well as beta-lactoglobulin, are also shown in Table 3 . Based on the documentary information available on Gainsborough’s working environment, among the members of the Bovinae subfamily, Bos taurus (domesticated cattle) is the most probable source of the milk-based fixative, while it seems unlikely that other species such as Bos mutus (wild yak) , Bos indicus (domestic cattle native to South Asia) , Bos grunniens (domestic yak), or Bison bison bison (American bison) may have been employed. Gainsborough’s use of milk originating from Bos taurus , as opposed to other animal species such as goat or sheep, would appear to reflect the urban setting in which he is known to have created his drawings, in the cities of Bath (1759–1774) and London (1774–1788), during the four decades of his artistic career that are relevant to the present study.

The various coating materials described by Gainsborough in his 1773 letter to Jackson include skim milk, gum Arabic, and varnish, all of which, however, are mentioned only in relation to his multi-layered oils on paper. The presence of yellowed coatings, both overall and selectively applied, on some of The Morgan’s drawings clearly suggests that the artist likely used different procedures and materials to fix or protect his various creations.

Fixatives are materials used to enhance the attachment of friable pigments onto a surface, and have been in use for centuries. They may be applied by brush, by spraying with an atomizer, or by dipping. In the 18th century, discussions about fixing pastels, the most friable of media, were taking place. Research in this area conducted by Shelley and other authors indicates that most fixatives employed consisted of natural resins or some form of animal glue [ 27 , 28 , 29 ]. These materials, however, would significantly alter the color, saturation, and texture of the pastels, and, because of this reason, they were not well liked by professional artists. Gainsborough’s desire for an invisible fixative is understandable in light of the fact that he worked in various wet and dry media and was reportedly fearless in his experimentation.

Since the Renaissance, artists have known that lead white would darken under certain conditions and, by the 18th century, using this pigment in watercolors was considered a risky choice, as sulfur in the air would prompt the conversion of the white basic lead carbonate into gray lead sulfide. Writing on the need for careful preparation of lead white, Edward Norgate, English miniature painter and court musician to James I, states: “You cannot be too carefull of this, the neglect whereof hath bene the spoile of many in the Vatican Library at Rome, as alsoe in the curious Villa of Cardinall Burghese and elsewhere. For these being heightened with white, are in the heigthninge become soe black, rusty and dis - coloured as I told you of before” [ 30 ]. An unpublished technical study by Sophie Crombie, an undergraduate student at the Courtauld Institute of Art, in the 1980s attempted to re-create Gainsborough’s oils on paper, as discussed in his 1773 letter. Interestingly, the author noted that varnishing lead white chalk without a fixative does not work, because the pigment is simply brushed away, indicating that it was poorly bound to the paper support and required being worked with a substance that would improve adhesion. According to Crombie, dipping in milk does appear to act as a fixative, adhering the chalk securely to the paper and allowing for a varnish (or other coatings) to be subsequently applied [ 5 ].

The general protein hydrophilicity promotes a good compatibility to polar surfaces, such as paper [ 31 ], and an effective barrier to apolar gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. In light of these observations, coating industries are manipulating proteins’ physicochemical properties in order to modulate selectively their barrier, mechanical, and surface properties for use in coatings and packaging [ 32 ]. A parallel is possible with protein-based coatings on artworks, as reported in a work exploring the protective properties of egg white as a coating for paintings [ 33 ], and, as in the present case of study, with milk proteins used as a protective coating for works of art on paper.

Observations of discolored coatings and subtle surface phenomena on many of The Morgan’s drawings, as well as the artist’s detailed letter of 1773, strongly suggested that a milk fixative might be present on Gainsborough’s works on paper containing lead white. As explained above, results of non-invasive analysis and examination of microscopic samples revealed that both calcite and lead white were used in many of his artworks, which led to further questions about the possible presence of a fixative or coating that might protect other pigments, in addition to lead white, from darkening. All of the lead white-containing areas analyzed appeared to be in excellent condition, with no apparent cracking, flaking or darkening, although these phenomena have been observed in Gainsborough drawings housed in other collections [ 5 , 34 ].

Micro-sampling in association with qualitative proteomics provided important new information. As seen in Tables 1 , 2 , and 3 , all of the drawings tested by this method, regardless of the sampling location (front or back, background or painted area), the date of the artworks, or the white pigment used in them, were found to contain casein and other milk proteins specific to Bos taurus . This result was unanticipated, since it was expected that only the works with lead white might show milk proteins. These data would strongly suggest the following: (i) Gainsborough applied a milk fixative on his drawings whether the white pigment employed was calcite or lead white, or the medium was graphite, chalk, watercolor, or oil paint; (ii) in all cases examined, the milk fixative was applied to both sides of the paper support; (iii) Gainsborough could have been using milk fixatives as early as 1750. The discovery that milk was present on chalk, graphite, and wash drawings prompts further in-depth research to investigate all drawing types and styles in the artist’s oeuvre not only to understand the extent of his use of milk fixatives, but also to evaluate the possible presence of other materials such as gums and natural resins. The present study indicates that dipping in milk was part of Gainsborough’s process of making drawings over a long period of time. Furthermore, based on the data collected thus far, this practice does not appear to relate only to drawings with multiple layers (i.e. III, 61; III, 62; III, 63a), but even to purely graphite works (2005.82) and simple watercolors made with lead white wash (2014.32).

The question of what is yellowing in these works remains unclear and must be further studied. Because to date only the analysis of proteins was undertaken, future research must also consider whether polysaccharides or natural resins may be present, and if unexpected interactions with casein-based coatings leading to yellowing may occur. While Gainsborough noted that he used specifically skim milk, it is likely that at least some milk fat remained in his 18th-century processed milk, and that the amounts might vary in each fixative bath used. The interaction of the fat with the milk proteins and with other possible coatings also prompts for further studies. Scientific investigation, beyond The Morgan’s collection, of potential milk fixatives from a larger group of paper artworks by both Gainsborough and his contemporaries would solidify the observations gathered in the present research and enable a deeper understanding of the working methods of the time. In addition to this, it would be crucial to investigate whether milk actually does protect lead white from pollution and conversion to lead sulfide, or if another coating was present that preserved the lead white films in The Morgan’s drawings.

Conclusions

The present article describes the first, comprehensive scientific study of a selection of drawings by 18th-century English artist Thomas Gainsborough in the collection of The Morgan Library & Museum, New York. Visual examination of the artworks combined with in-depth analysis by means of a variety of instrumental techniques have been carried out in order to explore the artist’s mastery of materials and innovative practices for making drawings, as described in a letter that he wrote to his friend William Jackson in January 1773. Among the main topics investigated are Gainsborough’s choice of white pigments and, most interestingly, his reported use of milk-based fixatives to protect the media and prevent pigments from discoloring. Results of this study have shown that, in addition to lead white, calcite was also employed in several works created during the last decade of Gainsborough’s artistic production, which may attest to an intrinsic evolution in the artist’s choice of materials over the course of his career. Moreover, the artist appears to have applied milk from domestic cows as casein-based fixative on his drawings from 1750–1785, regardless of the media and white pigments used. The data collected indicate that visual examination does not correlate to the actual presence of fixative, which can only be unambiguously confirmed through scientific analysis. Gainsborough’s documented practice of dipping his artworks in a fixative bath was initially supported by normal light and UV photography of one of the drawings examined, namely Landscape with Horse and Cart Descending a Hill (ca. 1780; III, 63). In this work, a clean corner at the upper left, very distinct from the overall deteriorated coating, possibly corresponds to the location where the work might have been held by the artist when dipping it in milk. The consistent qualitative identification of the milk proteins sampled on all the drawing surfaces would appear to indicate a similar deposition across both the front and reverse of the drawings. This likely supports an overall dipping of the paper rather than a localized application of a fixative by brush or random non-specific transfer from storage or handling.

In conclusion, the present study clearly demonstrates the necessity of a multifaceted approach combining art historical research, examination of the available documentary sources, careful inspection of the artworks, as well as advanced micro-sampling tools, ad - hoc sample preparation methods, highly sensitive analytical techniques, and sophisticated bioinformatics data processing to shed light on artists and their practices. In addition to granting conservators and art historians a deeper understanding of the complexity of Gainsborough’s materials and innovative drawing techniques, this work paves the way for further investigations aiming to probe the use of milk-based fixatives by other artists working on paper such as Degas and Van Gogh. Additional work will be also required to assess more accurately the milk fixative identified on Gainsborough’s drawings as representative of 18th-century skim milk. In the near future, the cutting-edge methodologies and techniques combined here may similarly provide useful insight into different classes of materials, such as paper sizing as well as gum Arabic coatings, among others.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated during this study are included in this published article.

Abbreviations

X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy

Nano-liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the European Union (FEDER, Marie Skłodowska Curie European Training Network), the CNRS, the University of Bordeaux and IDEX (Excellence Initiative of University of Bordeaux), the Nouvelle-Aquitaine Region (France), the Institut Universitaire de France and the IBISA network (Infrastructures en Biologie Santé et Agronomie) for supporting this work. The authors are also grateful to Dr. Dan Kirby for his guidance and for generously sharing his sampling protocols. Additionally, FP acknowledges Dr. Anna Cesaratto for her initial contribution to this project during her time at The Met working in the NICS program, while RS would also like to thank Abigail Merritt and Justine Provino for performing UVA photography of the artworks studied.

This research was made possible by the Network Initiative for Conservation Science (NICS), a Metropolitan Museum of Art program. Support for NICS was provided by a grant (31500630) from The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. FG is supported by the Marie Skłodowska Curie European Training Network (ETN) “TEMPERA”, a project funded by the European Union’s EU Framework Programme for Research and Innovation Horizon 2020 (Grant Agreement number 722606). This project benefits from the support of the CNRS International Laboratory ARCHE ARt and Cultural HEritage: Natural Organic Polymers by Mass Spectrometry.

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Federica Pozzi & Julie Arslanoglu

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Francesca Galluzzi & Caroline Tokarski

Thaw Conservation Center, The Morgan Library & Museum, 225 Madison Avenue, New York, NY, 10016, USA

Reba Snyder

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Contributions

FP coordinated the study, carried out XRF and Raman analysis and data interpretation, collected all results, and wrote an initial draft of the manuscript. JA removed samples for nano-LC/MS analysis and interpreted the proteomic results with CT. FG and CT carried out nano-LC/MS sample preparation, data analysis, interpretation and description of results. RS provided art historical context, performed visual examination, supported the scientific work, and helped with drafting the article’s Introduction. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Pozzi, F., Arslanoglu, J., Galluzzi, F. et al. Mixing, dipping, and fixing: the experimental drawing techniques of Thomas Gainsborough. Herit Sci 8 , 85 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-020-00431-x

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37 Soft Pastel Drawing Ideas for Beginners

Soft pastels are many artists’ first choice because they create artistic smudgy lines and provide vivid colors.

Accordingly, you need to get creative with your colors and use a wide range of shades.

If you’ve finally decided to practice soft pastel drawing, then you’re in the right place.

We’ve made a list of soft pastel drawing ideas for beginners. So prepare your colors and jump in!

1. Beach Flowers Beginner Soft Pastel Drawing

You can test your drawing skills with this serene and beautiful drawing. You’ll use different shades of blue to draw the sea.

Check the tutorial for Beach Flowers Beginner Soft Pastel Drawing on laurenwatkinsart.com .

2. Soft Pastel Landscape Painting

If you have a PanPastel color set that you want to try out, you can attempt this simple landscape painting.

The important part is that you get used to the technique of soft pastel coloring.

3. Sunset Drawing Over the Wheat Field

Since sunset colors are pretty basic, you won’t have to brainstorm for this idea. And luckily, it’s effortless to create but will look incredible in the end.

4. Soft Pastel Galaxy Drawing

For this idea, you’ll only need soft pastel colors, paper, and a fixing spray to ensure the colors stay intact after finishing.

Since galaxies have versatile colors, you can get creative and use different blue, purple, and black shades.

5. Dramatic Sunset Drawing

You can either use PanPastel colors or pastel pencils for this idea. The fun part is that you’ll get to manipulate different colors to create a masterpiece.

6. Soft Pastel Art Project for Kids

Although this idea doesn’t have a specific drawing to try out, it’ll be a fun introduction to art for kids.

7. Soft Pastel Tonal Sky

You’ll merely blend colors, and voila! You’ll have a beautiful piece of art to brag about. That said, you should keep all the shades light to avoid your painting looking messy or disjointed.

8. Bird Soft Pastel Drawing

Find out more about Bird Soft Pastel Drawing on stepbystepart.co.uk .

9. Autumn Leaf in Soft Pastels

10. violet flower drawing, 11. pink orchids drawing.

In this drawing, you’ll get to draw beautiful pink orchids with a light background to bring out the flowers. Luckily, it’s pretty simple, thus perfect for beginners.

12. Flowers Pot Soft Pastel Drawing

They’re ideal because the picture has meticulous details and sharp lines that you can’t get with your fingers. Also, the result will be worthy of hanging on your wall.

13. Snow Leopard Drawing

Of course, you’ll draw it with a pencil first so that you can erase mistakes if you make any.

14. Landscape Scenery for Kids

The great part about this idea is that you can attempt it with your kids. Of course, you’ll have to deal with some mess afterward, but the result will be beautiful, and your kids will improve their creative skills.

15. Winter Landscape at Sunset Drawing

Get the tutorial for Winter Landscape At Sunset Drawing on painting.tube .

16. Parrot Soft Pastel Drawing

17. lotus flower drawing, 18. soft pastel drawing ideas for beginners.

Learn about Soft Pastel Drawing Ideas for Beginners from Welcome to Nana’s .

19. Working With Pastels – Easy Process Art for Kids

20. autumn leaf in soft pastels, 21. tonal sky in soft pastels tutorial.

Learn about the Tonal Sky in Soft Pastels Tutorial from Step by Step Art .

22. How to Draw Galaxy With Soft Pastels

23. beach flowers beginner soft pastel tutorial.

Read about the Beach Flowers Beginner Soft Pastel Tutorial on Lauren Watkins Art .

23. Soft Pastel Flower Tutorials

25. how to draw a lotus flower with soft pastels, 26. leopard painting demonstration in pastels.

If you’re a fan of wildlife art, why not challenge yourself with a snow leopard drawing? We love this artwork idea because it demonstrates different techniques and guides you through everything from drawing and underpainting to painting the final layers.

27. Swallow Soft Pastels Tutorial

28. sunset with pastels.

Learn to create a Sunset With Pastels from The Virtual Instructor .

29. Coneflower Landscape Soft Pastel Tutorial

30. how to create a pastel painting in 6 easy steps, 31. drawing landscape scenery for beginners.

Newbie pastel artists and kids can try their hands at this landscape painting, as it’s easy with no sharp lines or intricate details. However, if kids are involved, be prepared for the inevitable creative mess that’ll follow!

32. How to Draw a Parrot With Soft Pastels

33. simple landscape pastels.

Get the instructions for these Simple Landscape Pastels from The Virtual Instructor .

34. Landscape Painting Tutorial For Beginners – Easy Drawing Tutorials

35. creating a violet flower in soft pastels, 36. sunset landscape soft pastel drawing.

Sunsets can never be overrated, hence this art piece. As usual, the tutorial will guide you throughout the process. But what makes this effortless is the use of only warm colors and a limited color scheme. Even better, you don’t need to use your fingers to blend or get your hands dirty!

37. Soft Pastels Colors Drawing

10 Experimental Drawing Processes

For me, this year is going to be all about ‘process’ and this blog post explores 10 experimental drawing processes. What do I mean by that? Rather than concentrating on single media I’m going to think more carefully about creating processes that my students can go through so that they create exciting, experimental work. We can all get into a bit of a rut with our teaching and my rut has been telling students to make sure they worked with pencil, pen, coloured pencil etc, ie single media. It has been more at the development stage of work that they have mixed things up more, but why not introduce this experimentation earlier in the project?

In the UK students aged 15 and above who pursue art at school have to fulfil an assessment objective that includes ‘recording’. This encompasses photography, drawing with all sorts of different media and writing such as annotation. Personally, I get students to do lots of recording before they look at an artist so that they have the freedom to work any way they want (as long as it’s appropriate for the theme they are investigating). Other art teachers may do this in different ways. My students would go on to look at an artist, develop their work further inspired by this artist, then create compositions and a final piece(s).

10 Experimental Drawing Processes for the Art Room

It’s during this recording phase that I want to introduce more exciting, experimental drawing processes. Here are some ideas:

1. Stick down areas of collage before drawing. The artwork below shows collage which has then had white and grey paint added to it and then a charcoal drawing with white and yellow highlights added in paint.

[Collage + paint + charcoal drawing + paint highlights]

2. Place down appropriate pieces of collage for what you are going to draw. This is different from above as the collage is more part of the drawing rather than a background. Paint loosely with coffee, draw with coloured pencil.

[Draw with collage + loose coffee painting + detailed pencil]

3. Stretch paper, glue on tissue paper with PVA , let it dry, peel off loose bits, sandpaper off rough bits with fine sandpaper, draw with a pen. [Stretch paper + Distressed tissue background + Draw with pen] There is a video by artist Ian Murphy which shows this process here .

4. Stick together two pieces of packaging. Use gumstrip and masking tape to stick on the front like collage and then draw.

[Packageing + gumstrip + masking tape + drawing]

5. Ink splat or drip ink on paper, or work wet on wet with ink or watercolour, allow to dry, then draw.

[Ink or watercolour surface + ballpoint pen drawing].

6. Wet watercolour paper or really thick cartridge paper, blot with tissue so damp, draw with Payne’s grey watercolour. I like to give students a tiny blob from tubed watercolour for this task. You can see below how the watercolour bleeds into the damp paper. If the paper is too wet the drawing becomes completely obscured.

[Wet paper + draw with Payne’s grey watercolour and small brush + allow to dry + detail with Payne’s grey watercolour on dry drawing].

You can choose to leave the drawings as above or to paint on more detail like the example below.

The example of a bee below follows the process described above, only white pen has also been added.

7. Stretch paper, wet paper, dab on strong ink or dilute acrylic, lay down cling film (known as seran wrap in the States) which is deliberately creased, allowed to dry and peel off the clingfilm to reveal a beautiful surface. Draw in coloured pencil, pen or charcoal. The example below used dilute acrylic and charcoal.

[Clingfilm/ink surface + Draw]

8. Print with hessian or old net curtain or doilies, (probably in pale colours) allow to dry, draw on top. (Example coming soon).

9. Create a PowerPoint of images appropriate for the class theme. Give each student pieces of cartridge paper, coloured paper, brown paper, old envelopes et cetera. Give students a variety of media e.g. soft pencil, sharpie, charcoal. Use a timer and put the images on screen and give students three minutes, then two minutes, then one minute to draw the images you display on screen. I had to move the desks in my room to do this. I have done this with students aged 15 and each student drew about 15 drawings in a 50 minute lesson and chose their best 3 to go in their sketchbook. You could ask students to do contour drawings and blind contour drawings.

This student was shown a range of skeleton images.

10. Create a digital line drawing. Create different surfaces (printed, splashed, coffee, collage) print line drawing onto surfaces. Work with different media into prints. E.g. watercolour, Quink ink, stippling.

The example below shows three digital line drawings that have been arranged in a composition. They have then been printed onto a collage of book paper and coffee-stained paper.

I have tried all these processes above before but I just want to make sure I build in more exciting work like this to my planning. It’s part of my desire to be a ‘reflective practitioner’ and continually improve the way I teach.

Of course, there is still a place for using single media. Nothing beats a well-executed pencil drawing on a clean white page. My planning this year includes a pencil drawing and stippled drawing in pen for homework. As long as I show my students good examples that highlight my high expectations it should be alright for students to complete these tasks at home.

If you have any experimental drawing processes that you guide students through please comment below as I would love to hear about them.

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The Arty Teacher

Sarah Crowther is The Arty Teacher. She is a high school art teacher in the North West of England. She strives to share her enthusiasm for art by providing art teachers around the globe with high-quality resources and by sharing her expertise through this blog.

2 responses to “10 Experimental Drawing Processes”

I love to create and use hand made, unique drawing tools with my students. They collect a variety of materials such as q-tips, plastic netting, natural sticks, cardboard cut and frayed, and other materials that can be attached on the end of a wood tongue depressor to create a homemade tool for mark making. Using these tools and ink they can create stunning animal, landscape, and/or still life drawings. The experimental process is challenging and exciting! Love your blog!

This sounds like a great mark making lesson. It’s so engaging if they have to find their own tools. Thanks for your comment.

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Pastel Pencil Drawing Techniques for Beginners

Improve your Drawing and Painting Techniques with Pastel Pencils

Why Pastel Pencil Drawing?

If you like a medium that requires little mess and little set up, pastel pencils are a great way to begin. Pastel pencils combine the vibrant hues of pastels with the ease and precision of colored pencils. The medium neatly straddles the line of drawing and painting, allowing you to get fine lines and details for realistic results, as well as fantastic overall color.

Preview Tips and Techniques for Pastel Pencil now to learn how to paint a quick landscape painting, with tips for layering and blending in the sky and defining rocks in the foreground. Then, head over to ArtistsNetwork.tv for more from Colin Bradley, including this and his other full-length videos, materials lists, reviews, and more.

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8 World-Famous Artists Who Were Drawn to Working in Pastel

Some of the most prolific painters in art history have also worked in pastels. Scroll down to discover this other section of their portfolio.

Jean-François Millet

Pierre-Auguste Renoir

Edgar Degas

Mary Cassatt

Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

Pablo Picasso

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8 World-Famous Artists Who Were Drawn to Working in Pastel

Some of the most prolific painters in art history have also worked in pastels. Scroll down to discover this other section of their portfolio.

Jean-François Millet