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Language and communication in international students’ adaptation: a bibliometric and content analysis review

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• Michał Wilczewski   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7650-5759 1 &
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This article systematically reviews the literature (313 articles) on language and communication in international students’ cross-cultural adaptation in institutions of higher education for 1994–2021. We used bibliometric analysis to identify the most impactful journals and articles, and the intellectual structure of the field. We used content analysis to synthesize the results within each research stream and suggest future research directions. We established two major research streams: second-language proficiency and interactions in the host country. We found inconclusive results about the role of communication with co-nationals in students’ adaptation, which contradicts the major adaptation theories. New contextualized research and the use of other theories could help explain the contradictory results and develop the existing theories. Our review suggests the need to theoretically refine the interrelationships between the interactional variables and different adaptation domains. Moreover, to create a better fit between the empirical data and the adaptation models, research should test the mediating effects of second-language proficiency and the willingness to communicate with locals. Finally, research should focus on students in non-Anglophone countries and explore the effects of remote communication in online learning on students’ adaptation. We document the intellectual structure of the research on the role of language and communication in international students’ adaptation and suggest a future research agenda.

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Introduction

One of the consequences of globalization is the changing landscape of international higher education. Over the past two decades, there has been a major increase in the number of international students, that is, those who have crossed borders for the purpose of study (OECD, 2021a ), from 1.9 million in 1997 to over 6.1 million in 2019 (UIS Statistics, 2021 ). Even students who are motivated to develop intercultural competence by studying abroad (Jackson, 2015 ) face several challenges that prevent them from benefitting fully from that experience. Examples of these challenges include language and communication difficulties, cultural and educational obstacles affecting their adaptation, socialization, and learning experiences (Andrade, 2006 ), psychological distress (Smith & Khawaja, 2011 ), or social isolation and immigration and visa extension issues caused by Covid-19 travel restrictions (Hope, 2020 ).

Cross-cultural adaptation theories and empirical research (for reviews, see Andrade, 2006 ; Smith & Khawaja, 2011 ) confirm the critical importance of foreign-language and communication skills and transitioning to the host culture for a successful academic and social life. Improving our understanding of the role of foreign-language proficiency and communication in students’ adaptation is important as the number of international students in higher education worldwide is on the rise. This increase has been accompanied by a growing number of publications on this topic over the last decade (see Fig.  1 ). Previous reviews of the literature have identified foreign-language proficiency and communication as predictors of students’ adaptation and well-being in various countries (Smith & Khawaja, 2011 ). The most recent reviews (Jing et al., 2020 ) list second-language acquisition and cross-cultural adaptation as among the most commonly studied topics in international student research. However, to date, there are no studies specifically examining the role of language and communication in international students’ adaptation (henceforth “language and communication in student adaptation”). This gap is especially important given recent research promoting students’ self-formation (Marginson, 2014 ) and reciprocity between international and domestic students (Volet & Jones, 2012 ). The results challenge the traditional “adjustment to the host culture” paradigm whereby international students are treated as being out of sync with the host country’s norms (Marginson, 2014 ). Thus, this article differs from prior research by offering a systematic and in-depth review of the literature on language and communication in student adaptation using bibliometric co-citation analysis and qualitative content analysis. Our research has a methodological advantage in using various bibliometric tools, which should improve the validity of the results.

Source: HistCite). Note . TLC, total local citations received; TGC, total global citations received; Articles, number of articles published in the field; International Students, number (in millions) of international students worldwide (UIS Statistics, 2021 )

Yearly publication of articles on language and communication in student adaptation (

We focus on several questions:

What are the most impactful journals and articles about the role of language and communication in student adaptation?

What is the thematic structure of the research in the field?

What are the leading research streams investigating language and communication in student adaptation?

What are the effects of language and communication on student adaptation?

What are the future research directions?

After introducing the major concepts related to language and communication in student adaptation and the theoretical underpinnings of the field, we present our methodology. Using bibliometric and content analysis, we track the development of the field and identify the major themes, research streams, and studies that have shaped the state-of-the art and our current knowledge about the role of language and communication in student adaptation. Finally, we suggest avenues for future research.

Defining the concepts and theories related to language and communication in student adaptation

Concepts related to language and communication.

Culture is a socially constructed reality in which language and social practices interact to construct meanings (Burr, 2006 ). In this social constructionist perspective, language is viewed as a form of social action. Intertwined with culture, it allows individuals to communicate their knowledge about the world, as well as the assumptions, opinions, and viewpoints they share with other people (Kramsch, 1998 ). In this sense, people identify themselves and others through the use of language, which allows them to communicate their social and cultural identity (Kramsch, 1998 ).

Intercultural communication refers to the process of constructing shared meaning among individuals with diverse cultural backgrounds (Piller, 2007 ). Based on the research traditions in the language and communication in student adaptation research, we view foreign or second-language proficiency , that is, the skill allowing an individual to manage communication interactions in a second language successfully (Gallagher, 2013 ), as complementary to communication (Benzie, 2010 ).

Cross-cultural adaptation

The term adaptation is used in the literature interchangeably with acculturation , adjustment , assimilation , or integration . Understood as a state, cultural adaptation refers to the degree to which people fit into a new cultural environment (Gudykunst and Hammer, 1988 ), which is reflected in their psychological and emotional response to that environment (Black, 1990 ). In processual terms, adaptation is the process of responding to the new environment and developing the ability to function in it (Kim, 2001 ).

The literature on language and communication in student adaptation distinguishes between psychological, sociocultural, and academic adaptation. Psychological adaptation refers to people’s psychological well-being, reflected in their satisfaction with relationships with host nationals and their functioning in the new environment. Sociocultural adaptation is the individual’s ability to fit into the interactive aspects of the new cultural environment (Searle and Ward, 1990 ). Finally, academic adaptation refers to the ability to function in the new academic environment (Anderson, 1994 ). We will discuss the results of the research on language and communication in student adaptation with reference to these adaptation domains.

Theoretical underpinnings of language and communication in student adaptation

We will outline the major theories used in the research on international students and other sojourners, which has recognized foreign-language skills and interactions in the host country as critical for an individual’s adaptation and successful international experience.

The sojourner adjustment framework (Church, 1982 ) states that host-language proficiency allows one to establish and maintain interactions with host nationals, which contributes to one’s adaptation to the host country. In turn, social connectedness with host nationals protects one from psychological distress and facilitates cultural learning.

The cultural learning approach to acculturation (Ward et al., 2001 ) states that learning culture-specific skills allows people to handle sociocultural problems. The theory identifies foreign-language proficiency (including nonverbal communication), communication competence, and awareness of cultural differences as prerequisites for successful intercultural interactions and sociocultural adaptation (Ward et al., 2001 ). According to this approach, greater intercultural contact results in fewer sociocultural difficulties (Ward and Kennedy, 1993 ).

Acculturation theory (Berry, 1997 , 2005 ; Ward et al., 2001 ) identifies four acculturation practices when interacting with host nationals: assimilation (seeking interactions with hosts and not maintaining one’s cultural identity), integration (maintaining one’s home culture and seeking interactions with hosts), separation (maintaining one’s home culture and avoiding interactions with hosts), and marginalization (showing little interest in both maintaining one’s culture and interactions with others) (Berry, 1997 ). Acculturation theory postulates that host-language skills help establish supportive social and interpersonal relationships with host nationals and, thus, improve intercultural communication and sociocultural adjustment (Ward and Kennedy, 1993 ).

The anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM) theory (Gudykunst, 2005 ; Gudykunst and Hammer, 1988 ) states that intercultural adjustment is a function of one’s ability to cope with anxiety and uncertainty caused by interactions with hosts and situational processes. People’s ability to communicate effectively depends on their cognitive resources (e.g., cultural knowledge), which helps them respond to environmental demands and ease their anxiety.

The integrative theory of communication and cross-cultural adaptation (Kim, 2001 ) posits that people’s cultural adaptation is reflected in their functional fitness, meaning, the degree to which they have internalized the host culture’s meanings and communication symbols, their psychological well-being, and the development of a cultural identity (Kim, 2001 ). Communication with host nationals improves cultural adaptation by providing opportunities to learn about the host country’s society and culture, and developing intercultural communication competence that includes the ability to receive and interpret comprehensible messages in the host environment.

The intergroup contact theory (Allport, 1954 ; Pettigrew, 2008 ) states that contact between two distinct groups reduces mutual prejudice under certain conditions: when groups have common goals and equal status in the social interaction, exhibit intergroup cooperation, and have opportunities to become friends. Intercultural contact reduces prejudice toward and stereotypical views of the cultural other and provides opportunities for cultural learning (Allport, 1954 ).

These theories provide the theoretical framework guiding the discussion of the results synthesized through the content analysis of the most impactful articles in the field.

Methodology

Bibliometric and content analysis methods.

We used a mixed-method approach to review the research on language and communication in student adaptation for all of 1994–2021. This timeframe was informed by the data extraction process described in the next section. Specifically, we conducted quantitative bibliometric analyses such as co-citation analysis, keyword co-occurrence analysis, and conceptual thematic mapping, as well as qualitative content analysis to explore the research questions (Bretas & Alon, 2021 ).

Bibliometric methods use bibliographic data to identify the structures of scientific fields (Zupic and Čater, 2015 ). Using these methods, we can create an objective view of the literature by making the search and review process transparent and reproducible (Bretas and Alon, 2021 ). First, we measured the impact of the journals and articles by retrieving data from HistCite concerning the number of articles per journal and citations per article. We analyzed the number of total local citations (TLC) per year, that is, the number of times an article has been cited by other articles in the same literature (313 articles in our sample). We then analyzed the total global citations (TGC) each article received in the entire Web of Science (WoS) database. We also identified the trending articles in HistCite by calculating the total citation score (TLCe) at the end of the year covered in the study (mid-2021). This score rewards articles that received more citations within the last three years (i.e., up to the beginning of 2018). Using this technique, we can determine the emerging topics in the field because it considers not only articles with the highest number of citations received over a fixed period of time, but also those that have been cited most frequently in recent times (Alon et al., 2018 ).

Second, to establish a general conceptual structure of the field, we analyzed the co-occurrence of authors’ keywords using VOS software. Next, based on the authors’ keywords, we plotted a conceptual map using Biblioshiny (a tool for scientific mapping analysis that is part of the R bibliometrix-package) to identify motor, basic, niche, and emerging/declining themes in the field (Bretas and Alon, 2021 ).

Third, to determine specific research streams and map patterns within the field (Alon et al., 2018 ), we used the co-citation mapping techniques in HistCite that analyze and visualize citation linkages between articles (Garfield et al., 2006 ) over time.

Next, we used content analysis to synthesize the results from the 31 most impactful articles in the field. We analyzed the results within each research stream and discussed them in light of the major adaptation theories to suggest future research directions and trends within each research stream (Alon et al., 2018 ). Content analysis allows the researcher to identify the relatively objective characteristics of messages (Neuendorf, 2002 ). Thus, this technique enabled us to verify and refine the results produced by the bibliometric analysis, with the goal of improving their validity.

Data extraction

We extracted the bibliographic data from Clarivate Analytics’ WoS database that includes over 21,000 high-quality, peer-reviewed scholarly journals (as of July 2020 from clarivate.libguides.com). We adopted a two-stage data extraction approach (Alon et al., 2018 ; Bretas and Alon, 2021 ). Table 1 describes the data search and extraction processes.

First, in June 2021, we used keywords that would best cover the researched topic by searching for the following combinations of terms: (a) “international student*” OR “foreign student*” OR “overseas student*” OR “study* abroad” OR “international education”—to cover international students as a specific sojourner group; (b) “language*” and “communicat*”—to cover research on foreign-language proficiency as well as communication issues; and (c) “adapt*” OR “adjust*” OR “integrat*” OR “acculturat*”—to cover the adaptation aspects of the international students’ experience. However, given that cross-cultural adaptation is reflected in an individual’s functional fitness, psychological well-being, and development of a cultural identity (Kim, 2001 ), we included two additional terms in the search: “identit*” OR “satisf*”—to cover the literature on the students’ identity issues and satisfaction in the host country. Finally, based on a frequency analysis of our data extracted in step 2, we added “cultur* shock” in step 3 to cover important studies on culture shock as one of critical aspects of cross-cultural adaptation (Gudykunst, 2005 ; Pettigrew, 2008 ; Ward et al., 2001 ). After refining the search by limiting the data to articles published in English, the extraction process yielded 921 sources in WoS.

In the second stage, we refined the extraction further through a detailed examination of all 921 sources. We carefully read the articles’ abstracts to identify those suitable for further analysis. If the abstracts did not contain one or more of the three major aspects specified in the keyword search (i.e., international student, language and communication, adaptation), we studied the whole article to either include or exclude it. We did not identify any duplicates, but we removed book chapters and reviews of prior literature that were not filtered out by the search in WoS. Moreover, we excluded articles that (a) reported on students’ experiences outside of higher education contexts; (b) dealt with teaching portfolios, authors’ reflective inquiries, or anecdotal studies lacking a method section; (c) focused on the students’ experience outside the host country or on the experience of other stakeholders (e.g., students’ spouses, expatriate academics); (d) used the terms “adaptation,” “integration,” or “identity” in a sense different from cultural adaptation (e.g., adaptation of a syllabus/method/language instruction; integration of research/teaching methods/technology; “professional” but not “cultural” identity); or (e) used language/communication as a dependent rather than an independent variable. This process yielded 313 articles relevant to the topic. From them, we extracted the article’s title, author(s) names and affiliations, journal name, number, volume, page range, date of publication, abstract, and cited references for bibliometric analysis.

In a bibliometric analysis, the article is the unit of analysis. The goal of the analysis is to demonstrate interconnections among articles and research areas by measuring how many times the article is (co)cited by other articles (Bretas & Alon, 2021 ).

• Bibliometric analysis

Most relevant journals and articles

We addressed research question 1 regarding the most impactful journals and articles about the role of language and communication in student adaptation by identifying the most relevant journals and articles. Figure  2 lists the top 20 journals publishing in the field. The five most influential journals in terms of the number of local and global citations are as follows: International Journal of Intercultural Relations (79 and 695 citations, respectively), Journal of Studies in International Education (28 and 343 citations, respectively), Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development (14 and 105 citations, respectively), Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology (13 and 302 citations, respectively), and Higher Education (11 and 114 citations, respectively),

Source: HistCite). Note . TLC, total local citations received; TLC/t, total local citations received per year; TGC, total global citations received; Articles, number of articles published in the field

Top 20 journals publishing on language and communication in student adaptation (

Table 2  lists the 20 most influential and trending articles as measured by, respectively, local citations (TLC) and trending local citations at the end of the period covered (TLCe), that is, mid-2021. The most locally cited article was a qualitative study of Asian students’ experiences in New Zealand by Campbell and Li ( 2008 ) (TLC = 12). That study, which linked host-language proficiency with student satisfaction and effective communication in academic contexts, also received the highest number of global citations per year (TGC/t = 7.86). The most influential article in terms of total local citations per year was a quantitative study by Akhtar and Kröner-Herwig ( 2015 ) (TLC/t = 1.00) who linked students’ host-language proficiency, prior international experience, and age with acculturative stress among students in Germany. Finally, Sam’s ( 2001 ) quantitative study, which found no relationship between host-language and English proficiency and having a local friend on students’ satisfaction with life in Norway, received the most global citations (TGC = 115).

The most trending article (TLCe = 7) was a quantitative study by Duru and Poyrazli ( 2011 ) who considered the role of social connectedness, perceived discrimination, and communication with locals and co-nationals in the sociocultural adaptation of Turkish students in the USA. The second article with the most trending local citations (TLCe = 5) was a qualitative study by Sawir et al. ( 2012 ) who focused on host-language proficiency as a barrier to sociocultural adaptation and communication in the experience of students in Anglophone countries.

Keyword co-occurrence analysis

We addressed research question 2 regarding the thematic structure of the research in the field by analyzing the authors’ keyword co-occurrences to establish the thematic structure of the field (Bretas and Alon, 2021 ; Donthu et al., 2020 ). Figure  3 depicts the network of keywords that occurred together in at least five articles between 1994 and 2021. The nodes represent keywords, the edges represent linkages among the keywords, and the proximity of the nodes and the thickness of the edges represent how frequently the keywords co-occurred (Donthu et al., 2020 ). The analysis yielded two even clusters with 17 keywords each. Cluster 1 represents the primary focus on the role of language proficiency in student adaptation. It includes keywords such as “language proficiency,” “adaptation,” “acculturative stress,” “culture shock,” and “challenges.” Cluster 2 represents the focus on the role of intercultural communication and competence in student adaptation. It includes keywords such as “intercultural communication,” “intercultural competence,” “academic/psychological/sociocultural adaptation,” and “transition.”

Source: VOS)

Authors’ keyword co-occurrence analysis (

Conceptual thematic map

Based on the authors’ keywords, we plotted a conceptual map (see Fig.  4 ) using two dimensions. The first is density , which indicates the degree of development of the themes as measured by the internal associations among the keywords. The second is centrality , which indicates the relevance of the themes as measured by the external associations among the keywords. The map shows four quadrants: (a) motor themes (high density and centrality), (b) basic themes (low density and high centrality), (c) niche themes (high density and low centrality), and (d) emerging/declining themes (low density and centrality) (Bretas & Alon, 2021 ). The analysis revealed that motor themes in the field are studies of Chinese students’ experiences and student integration. Unsurprisingly, the basic themes encompass most topics related to language in student adaptation. Research examining the perspective of the students’ parents with regard to their children’s overseas experience exemplifies a niche theme. Finally, “international medical students” and “learning environment” unfold as emerging/declining themes. To determine if the theme is emerging or declining, we analyzed bibliometric data on articles relating to medical students’ adaptation and students’ learning environment. We found that out of 19 articles on medical students published in 13 journals (10 medicine/public health-related), 15 (79%) articles were published over the last five years (2016–2021), which clearly suggests an emerging trend. The analysis of authors’ keywords yielded only three occurrences of the keyword “learning environment” in articles published in 2012, 2016, and 2020, which may suggest an emerging trend. To further validate this result, we searched for this keyword in titles and abstracts and identified eight relevant articles published between 2016 and 2020, which supports the emerging trend.

Source: Biblioshiny)

Conceptual thematic map (

Citation mapping: research streams

We addressed research question 3 regarding the leading research streams investigating language and communication in student adaptation by using co-citation mapping techniques to reveal how the articles in our dataset are co-cited over time. To produce meaningful results that would not trade depth for breadth in our large dataset (313 articles), we limited the search to articles with TGC ≥ 10 and TLC ≥ 3. These thresholds yielded the 31 articles (10% of the dataset) that are most frequently cited within and outside the dataset, indicating their driving force in the field. We analyzed these 31 articles further because their number corresponds with the suggested range of the most-cited core articles for mapping in HistCite (Garfield et al., 2006 ).

Figure  5 presents the citation mapping of these 31 articles. The vertical axis shows how the articles have been co-cited over time. Each node represents an article, the number in the box represents the location of the article in the entire dataset, and the size of the box indicates the article’s impact in terms of TLCs. The arrows indicate the citing direction between two articles. A closer distance between two nodes/articles indicates their similarity. Ten isolated articles in Fig.  5 have not been co-cited by other articles in the subsample of 31 articles.

Source: HistCite)

Citation mapping of articles on language and communication in student adaptation (

A content analysis of these 31 articles points to two major and quite even streams in the field: (a) “ second-language proficiency ” (16 articles) and (b) “ interactions in the host country ” involving second-language proficiency, communication competence, intercultural communication, and other factors (15 articles). We clustered the articles based on similar conceptualizations of language and communication and their role in student adaptation. As Fig.  5 illustrates, the articles formed distinct but interrelated clusters. The vertical axis indicates that while studies focusing solely on second-language proficiency and host-country interactions have developed relatively concurrently throughout the entire timespan, a particular interest in host-country interactions occurred in the second decade of research within the field (between 2009 and 2013). The ensuing sections present the results of the content analysis of the studies in each research stream, discussing the results in light of the major theories outlined before.

Content analysis

We sought to answer research question 4 regarding the effects of language and communication on student adaptation by synthesizing the literature within the previously established two research streams. The concept map in Fig.  6 illustrates the predictive effects of second-language proficiency and host-country interactions on various adaptation domains. Table 4 in the Appendix presents a detailed description of the synthesis and lists studies reporting these effects, underscoring inconclusive results.

A concept map synthesizing research on language and communication in student adaptation

Second-language proficiency

This research stream focuses on language barriers and the role of foreign-language proficiency in student adaptation. Having host-language proficiency predicts less acculturative stress (Akhtar and Kröner-Herwig, 2015 ), while limited host-language proficiency inhibits communication with locals and academic integration (Cao et al., 2016 ). These results are in line with the acculturation theory (Berry, 1997 , 2005 ; Ward et al., 2001 ) and the communication and cross-cultural adaptation theory (Kim, 2001 ). Cross ( 1995 ) suggested that social skills predict sociocultural rather than psychological (perceived stress, well-being) adaptation (Searle and Ward, 1990 ). Indeed, several qualitative studies have explained that the language barrier affects sociocultural adaptation by preventing students from establishing contacts with host nationals (Wang and Hannes, 2014 ), developing meaningful relationships (Sawir et al., 2012 ), and limiting occasions for cultural learning (Trentman, 2013 ), supporting the acculturation theory (Anderson, 1994 ; Church, 1982 ; Searle and Ward, 1990 ).

Moreover, insufficient host-language proficiency reduces students’ satisfaction by hampering their communication, socialization, and understanding of lectures in academic contexts (Campbell and Li, 2008 ). Similarly, language affects academic adaptation in students who have difficulty communicating with domestic students (Young and Schartner, 2014 ) or when used as a tool in power struggles, limiting students’ opportunities to speak up in class and participate in discussions or decision-making (Shi, 2011 ). Students who have limited host-language proficiency tend to interact with other international students, which exacerbates their separation from domestic students (Sawir et al., 2012 ). These findings again confirm the theories of acculturation (Berry, 1997 ; Ward et al., 2001 ) and communication and cross-cultural adaptation (Kim, 2001 ).

With regard to the acculturation theory (Berry, 1997 ; Ward and Kennedy, 1999 ), we found inconclusive results concerning the impact of foreign-language skills on students’ satisfaction and adaptation. Specifically, some studies (e.g., Sam, 2001 ; Ying and Liese, 1994 ) found this effect to be non-significant when tested in regression models. One explanation for this result might be the indirect effect of language on adaptation. For instance, Yang et al. ( 2006 ) established that host-language proficiency mediated the relationship between contact with host nationals and the psychological and sociocultural adjustment of students in Canada. Swami et al. ( 2010 ) reported that better host-language skills among Asian students in Britain predicted their adaptation partly because they had more contacts with host nationals. In turn, Meng et al. ( 2018 ) found that the relationship between foreign-language proficiency and social and academic adaptation was fully mediated by global competence (understood as “intercultural competence” or “global mindset”) in Chinese students in Belgium.

Interactions in the host country

The second research stream comprises studies taking a broader look at language and communication in student adaptation by considering both individual and social interaction contexts: second-language (host-language and English) proficiency; willingness to communicate in the second language; communication interactions with domestic and international students, host nationals, and co-nationals; social connectedness (i.e., a subjective awareness of being in a close relationship with the social world; Lee and Robbins, 1998 ; and integrative motivation (i.e., a positive affective disposition towards the host community; Yu, 2013 .

Host-language proficiency predicts academic (Hirai et al., 2015 ; Yu, 2013 ), psychological (Hirai et al., 2015 ; Rui and Wang, 2015 ), and sociocultural adaptation (Brown, 2009 ; Duru and Poyrazli, 2011 ), confirming the acculturation theory (Ward et al., 2001 ). However, although some studies (Hirai et al., 2015 ; Yu, 2013 ) confirmed the impact of host-language proficiency on academic adaptation, they found no such impact on sociocultural adaptation. Yu’s ( 2013 ) study reported that sociocultural adaptation depends on academic adaptation rather than on host-language proficiency. Moreover, host-language proficiency increases the students’ knowledge of the host culture, reduces their uncertainty, and promotes intercultural communication (Gallagher, 2013 ; Rui and Wang, 2015 ), supporting the central aspects of the AUM theory (Gudykunst, 2005 ).

In turn, by enabling communication with academics and peers, second-language proficiency promotes academic (Yu and Shen, 2012 ) and sociocultural adaptation, as well as social satisfaction (Perrucci and Hu, 1995 ). It also increases the students’ willingness to communicate in non-academic contexts. This willingness mediates the relationship between second-language proficiency and cross-cultural difficulties among Asian students in England (Gallagher, 2013 ). This finding may explain inconclusive results concerning the relationship between second-language proficiency and cultural adaptation. It appears that second-language proficiency alone is insufficient for successful adaptation. This proficiency should be coupled with the students’ willingness to initiate intercultural communication to cope with communication and cultural difficulties, which is compatible with both the AUM theory and Kim’s ( 2001 ) communication and cross-cultural adaptation theory.

As mentioned before, host-language proficiency facilitates adaptation through social interactions. Research demonstrates that communication with domestic students predicts academic satisfaction (Perrucci and Hu, 1995 ) and academic adaptation (Yu and Shen, 2012 ), confirming Kim’s ( 2001 ) theory. Moreover, the frequency of interaction (Zimmermann, 1995 ) and direct communication with host nationals (Rui and Wang, 2015 ) predict adaptation and reduce uncertainty, supporting the AUM theory. Zhang and Goodson ( 2011 ) found that social interactions with host nationals mediate the relationship between adherence to the host culture and sociocultural adaptation difficulties, confirming the acculturation theory (Berry, 1997 ), the intergroup contact theory (Allport, 1954 ; Pettigrew, 2008 ), and the culture learning approach in acculturation theory (Ward et al., 2001 ).

In line with the intergroup contact theory, social connectedness with host nationals predicts psychological and sociocultural adaptation (e.g., Hirai et al., 2015 ; Zhang and Goodson, 2011 ), confirming the sojourner adjustment framework (Church, 1982 ) and extending the acculturation framework (Ward and Kennedy, 1999 ) that recognizes the relevance of social connectedness for sociocultural adaptation only.

Research on interactions with co-nationals has produced inconclusive results. Some qualitative studies (Pitts, 2009 ) revealed that communication with co-nationals enhances students’ sociocultural adaptation and psychological and functional fitness for interacting with host nationals. Consistent with Kim’s ( 2001 ) theory, such communication may be a source of instrumental and emotional support for students when locals are not interested in contacts with them (Brown, 2009 ). Nonetheless, Pedersen et al. ( 2011 ) found that social interactions with co-nationals may cause psychological adjustment problems (e.g., homesickness), contradicting the acculturation theory (Ward and Kennedy, 1994 ), or increase their uncertainty (Rui and Wang, 2015 ), supporting the AUM theory.

Avenues for future research

We addressed research question 5 regarding future research directions through a content analysis of the 31 most impactful articles in the field. Importantly, all 20 trending articles listed in Table 1 were contained in the set of 31 articles. This outcome confirms the relevance of the results of the content analysis. We used these results as the basis for formulating the research questions we believe should be addressed within each of the two research streams. These questions are listed in Table 3 .

Research has focused primarily on the experience of Asian students in Anglophone countries (16 out of 31 most impactful articles), with Chinese students’ integration being the motor theme. This is not surprising given that Asian students account for 58% of all international students worldwide (OECD, 2021b ). In addition, Anglophone countries have been the top host destinations for the last two decades. The USA, the UK, and Australia hosted 49% of international students in 2000, while the USA, the UK, Canada, and Australia hosted 47% of international students in 2020 (Project Atlas, 2020 ). This fact raises the question of the generalizability of the research results across cultural contexts, especially given the previously identified cultural variation in student adaptation (Fritz et al., 2008 ). Thus, it is important to study the experiences of students in underexplored non-Anglophone host destinations that are currently gaining in popularity, such as China, hosting 9% of international students worldwide in 2019, France, Japan, or Spain (Project Atlas, 2020 ). Furthermore, future research in various non-Anglophone countries could precisely define the role of English as a lingua franca vs. host-language proficiency in international students’ experience.

The inconsistent results concerning the effects of communication with co-nationals on student adaptation (e.g., Pedersen et al., 2011 ; Pitts, 2009 ) indicate that more contextualized research is needed to determine if such communication is a product of or a precursor to adaptation difficulties (Pedersen et al., 2011 ). Given the lack of confirmation of the acculturation theory (Ward and Kennedy, 1994 ) or the communication and cross-cultural adaptation theory (Kim, 2001 ) in this regard, future research could cross-check the formation of students’ social networks with their adaptation trajectories, potentially using other theories such as social network theory to explain the contradictory results of empirical research.

Zhang and Goodson ( 2011 ) showed that social connectedness and social interaction with host nationals predict both psychological and sociocultural adaptation. In contrast, the sojourner adjustment framework (Ward and Kennedy, 1999 ) considered their impact on sociocultural adaptation only. Thus, future research should conceptualize the interrelationships among social interactions in the host country and various adaptation domains (psychological, sociocultural, and academic) more precisely.

Some studies (Brown, 2009 ; Gallagher, 2013 ; Rui and Wang, 2015 ) confirm all of the major adaptation theories in that host-language proficiency increases cultural knowledge and the acquisition of social skills, reduces uncertainty and facilitates intercultural communication. Nevertheless, the impact of language on sociocultural adaptation appears to be a complex issue. Our content analysis indicated that sociocultural adaptation may be impacted by academic adaptation (Yu, 2013 ) or does not occur when students do not engage in meaningful interactions with host nationals (Ortaçtepe, 2013 ). To better capture the positive sociocultural adaptation outcomes, researchers should take into account students’ communication motivations, together with other types of adaptation that may determine sociocultural adaptation.

Next, in view of some research suggesting the mediating role of second-language proficiency (Yang et al., 2006 ), contacts with host nationals (Swami et al., 2010 ), and students’ global competence (Meng et al., 2018 ) in their adaptation, future research should consider other non-language-related factors such as demographic, sociocultural, and personality characteristics in student adaptation models.

Finally, the conceptual map of the field established the experiences of medical students and the learning environment as an emerging research agenda. We expect that future research will focus on the experience of other types of students such as management or tourism students who combine studies with gaining professional experience in their fields. In terms of the learning environment and given the development and growing importance of online learning as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic, future research should explore the effects of remote communication, both synchronous and asynchronous, in online learning on students’ adaptation and well-being.

This article offers an objective approach to reviewing the current state of the literature on language and communication in student adaptation by conducting a bibliometric analysis of 313 articles and a content analysis of 31 articles identified as the driving force in the field. Only articles in English were included due to the authors’ inability to read the identified articles in Russian, Spanish, or Chinese. Future research could extend the data search to other languages.

This review found support for the effects of language of communication on student adaptation, confirming major adaptation theories. Nevertheless, it also identified inconsistent results concerning communication with co-nationals and the complex effects of communication with host nationals. Thus, we suggested that future research better captures the adaptation outcomes by conducting contextualized research in various cultural contexts, tracking the formation of students’ social networks, and precisely conceptualizing interrelations among social interactions in the host country and different adaptation domains. Researchers should also consider students’ communication motivations and the mediating role of non-language-related factors in student adaptation models.

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Acknowledgements

We thank the anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and suggestions.

This research is supported by the Polish National Agency for Academic Exchange grant “Exploring international students’ experiences across European and non-European contexts” [grant number PPN/BEK/2019/1/00448/U/00001] to Michał Wilczewski.

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Wilczewski, M., Alon, I. Language and communication in international students’ adaptation: a bibliometric and content analysis review. High Educ 85 , 1235–1256 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00888-8

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A Passage to America: University Funding and International Students

The pool of students in the global economy prepared for higher education and able to pay tuition at U.S. colleges and universities has expanded markedly in the last two decades, with a particularly notable increase among potential undergraduate students from China. Given the concentration of high quality colleges and universities in the U.S., there has been a substantial increase in the demand for enrollment among students from abroad. At the same time, substantial declines in state support, driven by contractions in state budgets, have occurred at public sector universities. For such universities, declines in state appropriations force a choice between increasing tuition levels, cutting expenditures, or enrolling a greater proportion of students paying full out-of-state tuition. In this paper we present evidence showing that a significant set of public universities were able to take advantage of the expanding pool of potential students from abroad to provide a stream of tuition revenue that partially offsets declining state appropriations. Our analysis focuses on the interaction between the type of university experience demanded by students from abroad and the supply-side of the U.S. market. For the period between 1996 and 2012, we estimate that a 10% reduction in state appropriations is associated with an increase in foreign enrollment of 12% at public research universities and about 17% at the most resource-intensive public universities. Our results tell a compelling story about the link between changes in state funding and foreign enrollment in recent years. In the absence of the pool of foreign students, many universities would have faced larger cuts to expenditures and potentially greater increases in in-state tuition charges.

We thank the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation for generous research support. Breno Braga gratefully acknowledges additional support from the Fleishman Fund at the Urban Institute. We are grateful to Sandy Baum, Scott Imberman, Richard Murphy, Jeff Smith, Emily Cook and seminar participants at the CESIfo Conference on the Economics of Education, the University of Illinois–Urbana Champaign, Urban Institute, Michigan, Ohio State, PAA, Society of Labor Economists, LACEA, and the NBER Spring Meetings on Education for helpful comments. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

I would like to thank the Alfred P Sloan Foundation and the Bankard Fund for Political Economy at the University of Virginia for support.

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• State Universities Turn to Higher-Tuition Foreign Students Author(s): John Bound Breno Braga Gaurav Khanna Sarah Turner Public research universities are accepting surging numbers of students from China, South Korea, and Saudi Arabia in an effort to...

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Internationalisation through research collaboration

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• https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2022.2054958

Introduction

The research collaboration context, coming together in research collaboration, initiating research collaboration, conditions for research collaboration, engaging in collaboration during uncertain times, final reflections, disclosure statement, additional information.

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Universities engage in international collaboration for a number of reasons. In the global North, which is characterised by wealth and power, universities increasingly use international collaboration for competitiveness and marketisation. In contrast, the global South engages in collaboration to strengthen research and build knowledge capacity. Prior studies argue that trust, mutual benefits, and achieving shared understandings and ways of working are important for sustainable collaboration. However, the studies generally examine what makes a “good” collaboration well after collaboration has been initiated. The contribution of this study is therefore to exemplify the relationship-building process between academics from an Ethiopian and Swedish university. The study is based in “co-operative inquiry” and uses data collected in April 2019 from questions composed by each set of academics, which were deliberated during their initial meeting. Their experiences of enablement and constraint in research collaboration and their motivations for pursuing a new collaboration are in focus.

• Internationalisation
• collaboration
• co-operative inquiry

International collaboration in higher education is increasingly seen as a key feature of “global” universities. “Global” is often used to signify quality in higher education institutions and to denote the interconnectedness and interdependence of higher education systems (Altbach, Citation 2004 ). Increasingly it is understood that many societal challenges are similar the world over and that multiple perspectives and players are required to tackle such global challenges, as has been demonstrated by the recent COVID-19 pandemic. International collaboration is one way to approach societal challenges that span the globe. These international collaborations can take a variety of forms and may involve university leadership, researchers, external practitioners, as well as community stakeholders, such as local schools and their teaching staff (Coburn & Penuel, Citation 2016 ). Some perceive the most advantageous collaborations as those found between universities in the global North and South (Tienda, Citation 2002 ). This is because international collaboration between universities in the North and South have been perceived as having the greatest potential to generate new knowledge for tackling global challenges and competitive advantage for those institutions involved (Maringe & Foskett, Citation 2010 ).

In this study, “North” and “South” represent global divisions in wealth and power, particularly in global knowledge systems. In the context of higher education, knowledge systems in the North are perceived as research-oriented, possessing good infrastructure and as central actors in the global knowledge system, while systems in the South are perceived as less well equipped and dependent on the North (Lepori et al., Citation 2013 ). For example, many higher education institutions in sub-Saharan Africa look to the North for models, curriculum, research, funding, systems, principles and academic culture (Altbach, Citation 2006 ). These divisions can lead to challenges in knowing the best way forward in initiating and engaging in international collaboration.

Existing literature on the practice of international collaboration has tended to focus on offering advice and highlighting best practices. For example, there is literature offering guidance in co-authorship and data sharing (Kaye et al., Citation 2019 ) and on how to collaboratively decide on methodology, data collection and analysis approaches, and research dissemination (Secret et al., Citation 2011 ). Many publications have emphasised the importance of communication (Brew et al., Citation 2013 ; Delgadillo, Citation 2016 ; Spencer-Oatey, Citation 2012 ). For instance, Delgadillo ( Citation 2016 ) recommends having frequent communication where meeting agendas are specified in advance and meeting minutes are recorded. Others have emphasised the importance of adaptability and flexibility, as well as working together on the basis of shared decision-making, mutual benefit and reciprocity (Sutton et al., Citation 2012 ). Collaboration is also understood to require consistent work toward building trust through fairness, integrity and by honouring commitments (Sutton et al., Citation 2012 ). Developing a personal relationship in addition to a research relationship is also said to set the foundation for well-functioning research collaborations (Delgadillo, Citation 2016 ).

Considerably less research has focused on initiating collaboration, though some literature points to various aspects that should be considered. For example, the literature points to a need for greater deliberation when forming a collaboration, including clarifying motivations for initiating collaboration (de Grijs, Citation 2015 ), sharing and reflecting on values (Secret et al., Citation 2011 ), clarifying goals and creating an environment for candid discussions about disagreement, differences and challenges (Sutton et al., Citation 2012 ). Clarifying the responsibilities of each partner at the beginning of a collaboration is also important, as well as discussing imbalances in resources and what conditions are needed for a successful collaboration (de Grijs, Citation 2015 ; Sutton et al., Citation 2012 ). Sutton et al. ( Citation 2012 ) have also emphasised a need for patience during the initiation phase so that relationships and understanding can mature. It is important to note that each of these prior studies on initiating collaboration is retrospective, that is, they are reflections made well after the collaboration was initiated. Given the brevity of research on initiating collaboration, this study contributes to discussions of this stage of research collaboration and depicts reflections made at the time of initiating research collaboration.

As a team of academics from universities in Sweden and Ethiopia, and as authors of this article, we use our experience of initiating a research collaboration in the area of higher education internationalisation to reflect on our concerns, interests and the contextual conditions that may influence our collaboration and the outcomes of the project. We position ourselves in the wider context of North–South collaboration, a place where self-interest and mutual exchange coexists, and draw attention to the structural and cultural conditions specific to our different contexts that we foresee constraining and enabling our collaboration. We use Archer’s ( Citation 2000 , Citation 2003 , Citation 2007 ) ideas on “individual agency”, “corporate agency” and “reflexive deliberation” to understand how we jointly find ways to work with each other and build trust as we initiate our collaboration. It is important to note that our purpose is not to advocate our approach as the best path to initiating collaboration. Our purpose is rather to describe and share our way and experiences of initiating collaboration. Finally, we end with some considerations for the future as we continue to strive for truly collaborative research collaboration.

Internationalisation through research collaboration has commonly been viewed as a process where knowledge, values and ideas are exchanged across borders. Despite such potentially advantageous exchanges, international higher education collaborations between the North and South have been perceived as facilitators of “soft power”, where the interests of the North are favoured, and advantages are one-sided. In the context of international collaboration in higher education, “soft power” can refer to higher education institutions and academics promoting their own agenda and interests “through attraction rather than coercion” (Nye, Citation 2004 , p. x). In the following sub-sections, soft power in the context of international collaboration in the Ethiopian and Swedish higher education contexts is discussed. This is followed by a discussion of knowledge diplomacy (Knight, Citation 2015 ), an alternative framework that conceptualises international higher education relations as a “two-way exchange” and puts emphasis on “knowledge sharing and mutual benefits”.

Collaboration in the Ethiopian higher education context

Ethiopian higher education is no stranger to collaboration with the North and to experiences with soft power. International collaboration with the North is one strategy that Ethiopian higher education institutions have used to mitigate challenges relating to educational access, quality, efficiency and relevance. Engagement in international collaboration has been seen as necessary to relieve growth pains brought on by a rapidly expanding higher education sector. To illustrate, the number of public universities expanded from just two in the early 1990s to more than 45 by 2021 (Ministry of Education [MoE], Citation 2021 ). Coinciding with this growth, Ethiopian higher education has suffered from insufficient equipment and facilities, few lecturers with doctoral degrees and poor governance (Teferra, Citation 2016 ). Consequently, requests for collaboration with universities in the North have become common practice even though there are indications that Ethiopian academics are less successful than they would like to be in building and sustaining such collaborations (Tesfaye & Alemu, Citation 2019 ).

Correspondingly, most Ethiopian universities do not have clear strategies for international collaboration, which has led to collaborations with diversified and sometimes conflicting interests. For example, through arrangements with universities in the North, many Ethiopians have left to pursue higher education and not returned home or returned with knowledge that was irrelevant to the Ethiopian context (Haybano et al., Citation 2021 ). Additionally, collaboration with American and European academics has facilitated the adaptation of educational models and academic practices in Ethiopian universities while simultaneously delegitimising and repressing local knowledge systems (Woldegiorgis, Citation 2021 ). Tamrat and Teferra ( Citation 2018 ) argue that international collaborations do not meet the local needs, priorities and interests of Ethiopian higher education institutions. These examples illustrate how higher education institutions in the North can exert soft power through collaboration by having “the ability to influence the preferences of others” (Nye, Citation 2008 , p. 95), in this example preferences for models and practices emanating from higher education institutions in the North. Hence, there is a need for examples of international collaborations in higher education where the influence of soft power is limited.

Collaboration in the Swedish higher education context

From a “soft power” lens (Nye, Citation 2004 , Citation 2008 ), Swedish internationalisation policies in higher education that emphasise competition and self-interest can be viewed as exerting a form of soft power over other countries. For example, national policies on internationalisation point to the importance for higher education institutions to use internationalisation and international collaboration to attract students, faculty and staff (SOU Citation 2018b ). By recruiting international students, faculty and staff, Swedish educational culture, ideas and values can be exported to other countries when those individuals leave. According to Nye ( Citation 2008 ), part of soft power is making others want what you want or have. Therefore, from a soft power perspective, this sort of exposure to Swedish higher education and the spread of Swedish ideas contribute to securing Sweden’s position and the dominance of systems from the North within the global higher education system. Policy documents also point to how such internationalisation strategies can be used to gain access to knowledge, ideas and expertise beyond Swedish borders in order to raise educational quality and competitiveness (SOU, Citation 2018a ). These examples are consistent with Knight’s ( Citation 2015 ) arguments that policymakers are “increasingly concerned with justifying international higher education’s contribution to the economic development of a country” (p. 5) and Nye’s ( Citation 2004 , Citation 2008 ) soft power paradigm.

Collaboration within a framework of diplomacy

In recent years, there have been urgings of a need for a different lens from which to view higher education internationalisation and international collaboration; one that can be used to draw out the good of international collaboration rather than centring on their potential for serving self-interests. Knight ( Citation 2015 , Citation 2017 , Citation 2019 ) has led this initiative by developing a framework for knowledge diplomacy that can be used for such purposes. She argues that while it is important to recognise self-interest as part of international collaboration, there are also mutual interests and benefits for all involved, even if those interests and benefits may differ (Knight, Citation 2015 , Citation 2019 ). Knight ( Citation 2019 ) describes a collaboration based in a diplomatic framework as one motivated by addressing common issues and self-interests in a collaborative way. Negotiation, communication, co-operation, reciprocity, mutuality and compromise are further characteristics of a collaboration based in diplomacy (Knight, Citation 2019 ). Collaborations encompassing such characteristics are needed for bridging divisions and addressing global challenges (Knight, Citation 2015 ).

Initiating international research collaboration from a knowledge diplomacy framework means recognising and working to prevent power imbalances within the collaboration. This contrasts with a soft power approach to research collaboration where the outcomes and advantages of the collaboration are imbalanced and favour the partners from more powerful universities and regions of the world. It is from a framework of diplomacy that four academics from two universities – Mekelle University in Ethiopia and the University of Gothenburg in Sweden – came together in response to a call from the Swedish Research Council for applications to establish a network relevant to an international development collaboration. The purpose of our collaboration was to identify a common research interest in the area of higher education internationalisation and pursue funding for a research project.

As individual academics, we have our own complex array of personal research interests, values and commitments that we strive toward within our university positions. Archer ( Citation 2000 ) coined the term “individual agency” to represent this individual pursuit of goals within one’s own social (socio-academic) context and culture. Reflexive deliberation is a key element in Archer’s ( Citation 2007 ) understanding of how individuals identify goals and projects that they deem important and the processes by which they pursue those projects. To illustrate, Archer states, “Courses of action are produced through the reflexive deliberations of agents who subjectively determine their practical projects in relation to their objective circumstances” ( Citation 2003 , p. 141). Hence, the reflexive process refers to individuals “ … reflecting upon themselves in relation to their circumstances and vice versa” (Archer, Citation 2007 , p. 42). For us as academics, this implies reflecting on our own ideas, values and commitments in relation to the structural and cultural enablements and constraints in the universities and education systems in which we work. It is through these reflexive deliberations that we individually identify projects that we care about and find feasible, given the contextual conditions of our workplaces, and devise ways to realise these projects.

However, our aim was to come together as a team in pursuit of a common goal – a research project on internationalisation. That is, we wished to become “corporate agents” (Archer, Citation 2003 , p. 133). In order to come together in this fashion, Kahn et al. ( Citation 2012 ) suggest that this does not happen naturally. Rather they suggest that “social interaction is required for a group to identify, prioritise and act on mutual concerns” (Kahn et al., Citation 2012 , p. 54). In other words, a group must take part in collective, reflexive deliberation. What this means is that we had to come to an understanding of what motivated us to pursue a collaborative project on internationalisation, and what we hoped to achieve with it, so that we could design the project in a way that made it achievable. Prior research has pointed to the importance of these personal and collective reflexive deliberations for successful research outcomes in collaborative work (Brew et al., Citation 2013 ). Equally, we had to be aware of our circumstances (i.e. the structural and cultural conditions in which we work) and how they may relate to the design and follow through of a joint research project. As Leibowitz et al. ( Citation 2017 ) found, academics’ participation in research collaboration, as well as the overall outcomes of the collaboration, relate to the structural and cultural conditions of the academics’ universities and the research collaboration itself. Archer ( Citation 2000 , Citation 2003 , Citation 2007 ) and Kahn et al. ( Citation 2012 ) not only provide the theoretical framing for this study but also put into words the reflective processes we took as a group in “co-operative inquiry” (Heron, Citation 1996 ; Heron & Reason, Citation 2001 ) when initiating our research collaboration.

The steps we took to initiate our collaboration depart from co-operative inquiry (Heron, Citation 1996 ; Heron & Reason, Citation 2001 ). This form of inquiry is described as research that is not on people or about people, but rather research with people (Heron & Reason, Citation 2001 ). This approach involves people coming together as co-researchers and co-subjects to research some agreed upon area. Heron ( Citation 1996 ) describes four stages to co-operative inquiry: (1) the reflection stage, (2) the action stage, (3) experiential immersion and (4) the second reflection stage, where co-researchers come together and share the data that were collected. This study focuses on the first and second stages of co-operative inquiry.

Within the first stage, Heron ( Citation 1996 ) describes four phases: deliberating on possible focuses of inquiry, agreeing on a focus of inquiry, deciding on a method, and devising and agreeing on a set of procedures for gathering and recording data. The first phase began prior to our initial meeting. We discussed via email the possibility of documenting our process of initiating research collaboration and our reflections thereof. This idea came about through our extensive review of prior literature, which showed that reflecting on the collaboration process is usually an afterthought. We also hoped that in doing this, we would learn about each other, our experiences with international collaboration and our understanding of internationalisation. Then in April 2019, we came together for a six-day meeting at the University of Gothenburg campus. The first day consisted of casual introductions, a campus tour and further discussions on the idea of documenting our process of initiating collaboration. By the end of the day, we agreed that we would document our process and that initiating collaboration would be the focus of our co-operative inquiry. This relates to phase two in Heron’s ( Citation 1996 ) model.

Once we made the decision to document our process of initiating collaboration, we turned to discussing how we would document the process. These processes correspond to phases three and four in Heron’s ( Citation 1996 ) model, which centre on making an action plan and deciding on a method for data generation. We decided that we would gather data using semi-structured interviews that were recorded and then transcribed. Rather than decide on one set of questions that we each would respond to, each partner devised their own set of semi-structured interview questions to ask the other partner. Heron ( Citation 1996 ) has commented that such divergence can be beneficial in the early stages of inquiry because it “encourages individual interest and initiative at the start of the inquiry, and gets everyone motivated and involved” (p. 77). He continues on to say how this is the nature of “true co-operation” (p. 77), which is precisely what we hoped to emulate as we initiated collaboration.

Table 1. Reflective questions discussed between the partners.

The second stage of co-operative inquiry, that is the action stage, involved each partner interviewing the other. During the second day of our meeting, the Swedish university academics posed questions to the Ethiopian university academics. On the following day, the Ethiopian academics had their opportunity to ask questions. Within these interviews, we inadvertently deliberated on the structural and cultural contexts of our work environments, as well as our motivations for collaboration (Kahn et al., Citation 2012 ). This brought us closer to becoming corporate agents in pursuit of a research project on internationalisation (Archer, Citation 2003 ). Through the reflections carried out in this co-operative inquiry (Heron, Citation 1996 ; Heron & Reason, Citation 2001 ), we obtained the data used in this study.

Participants

The participants of this study are the authors. Each was working within the field of higher education and researching internationalisation at the time this collaboration was initiated. The participants were two male academics from Mekelle University in Ethiopia and two female academics from the University of Gothenburg in Sweden. Despite originating from different geographical locations, the participants are similar in many ways. First, each had the academic rank of assistant professor at the time the collaboration was initiated. Second, they each had extensive international experience and received their doctoral degrees outside their country of origin. Third, each participant had a background in the educational sciences and a strong research interest on internationalisation in higher education.

Prior to the initial meeting, the researchers had not met as a group, neither in-person or digitally. However, the two principal investigators from the Swedish and Ethiopian universities had a prior connection as students in a two-year Erasmus Mundus joint master’s degree programme in Europe. The academic relationship developed through this prior interaction was helpful in building trust (Kahn et al., Citation 2012 ), which is an important factor in meeting collaborative goals (Dhillon, Citation 2009 ).

The following discussion derives from the reflective processes that we took as a group. We begin by describing the contextual enablements and constraints that, in our view, would have some impact on our ability to achieve positive outcomes in our collaboration. These enablements and constraints are discussed in the frame of structural and cultural conditions. In other words, we reflected on ourselves in relation to our circumstances (Archer, Citation 2007 ). Then we move on to describe our individual motivations for collaboration.

Structural conditions

/ … / people are not conscious about the idea or of the debates in internationalisation. So, lack of knowledge on the management side could be one of the reasons for us to work with, but I don’t think it will completely disadvantage our intentions. But the fact is that the idea is not thoroughly discussed in our education system, it may force us to take a longer time to convince authorities, to convince people who are working with us, you know, to be involved in the project. (Ethiopian university partner)

/ … / I think through publications, through debates, through conferences, the idea will be disseminated sooner or later. And in my university, we have this speakers’ forum. Speakers come and they deliver speeches on various topics. / … / We can use this opportunity to disseminate the idea to the wider community. (Ethiopian university partner)

Support from university leaders by acknowledging a project’s importance and taking an interest in the project has also been shown to contribute toward enabling project members’ participation and positive outcomes from the project (Leibowitz et al., Citation 2017 ). Hence, the commitment of university leaders is necessary for internationalisation efforts in higher education to be successful (Tamrat & Teferra, Citation 2018 ), such as the efforts we are making through our collaboration.

We are fortunate, and we have some money. We’ll apply and hopefully get more. But if there isn’t then there becomes a challenge of balancing time and our other obligations. (Swedish university partner)

I think another part of it is to have close communication and yes, we have virtual resources, but that can only take you so far, I feel. You need to have these in-person connections as well. (Swedish university partner)

Cultural conditions

Culture can be enabling or constraining, which can influence the motivations of individual team members and consequently the successful initiation of research collaboration. In this study, “culture” refers to the academic norms, values and ideas that we wanted to strive for within our project team.

We develop the trust that our northern partners are indeed trying to help us improve the science, improve collaborations, publications, and we also have the trust that we are honestly involved in this project. We believe we can contribute, not just wait for the northern partner to tell us everything. So, I think if there is trust and collaboration, that will be the best project. (Ethiopian university partner)

So, the best partnerships that I’ve had are those where people have felt totally free to express themselves. / … / You know, being able to turn around and say: ‘I don’t understand’. And allowing people to talk. And allowing silence. (Swedish university partner)

/ … / successful projects are those planned properly. In particular, where the Southern partner’s priorities are considered and the capacity building is explicitly stated. It is in such cases that projects work very well. If it does not involve both partners’ discussions, debates and “stuff,” then, I do not think it will be very effective. (Ethiopian university partner)

Individual and corporate agency

Our reflections illustrate the reasons why we chose to become involved in the collaboration. Our involvement was greatly influenced by our individual commitments, concerns and perceived advantages in relation to the project. Commitment and concern as driving modes of behaviour (Archer, Citation 2007 ) were echoed by all project members as we have a shared interest and commitment to researching and practising internationalisation in higher education. As one Ethiopian university partner put it: “I love to look at internationalisation, from internationalisation as a concept to internationalisation as a practice”. Another of us emphasised how seeing value in the work we do is what will keep the collaboration alive: “You never stop. This is something you will never stop. You cannot stop. You will only stop, because you don’t think it’s important” (Swedish university partner). Such commitments to the overarching project goal can override the importance of other aspects, such as trust, that may not have developed yet in the initial stages of initiating collaboration (Dhillon, Citation 2009 ).

It is really first of all an exchange of ideas. What I know / … / and in my experience, in my exposure, will be either criticised or supported, supplemented, by my partner’s exposure and knowledge. So, I’m really ready to learn from others. (Ethiopian university partner)

I also believe it’s a continuing learning process. So, from this project, I think we all will come out with something. We will learn something. We will learn to be better human beings. (Swedish university partner)

I mean, so many people here, for example, haven’t had the experiences like you have / … / So just understanding difference in terms of the education system is possible. (Swedish university partner)

I think, what we expect is to work together on equal footing and on issues that can interest all of us, that may really benefit our respective universities and colleagues / … / but also the world. (Ethiopian university partner)

Concerns consistent with a soft power approach (Nye, Citation 2004 ; Citation 2008 ) to internationalisation and international collaboration (i.e. international relations that are driven by interests emanating from the North) was also mentioned as a motivation for engaging in the collaboration. One Ethiopian university partner raised some important questions with regards to internationalisation in Ethiopian higher education, “Who is benefitting indeed out of this? What should be the basis for collaboration?” Here, the questions raised point to apprehension over the distribution of benefits and about whose agenda is in focus. Like the observations made by Tamrat and Teferra ( Citation 2018 ), this Ethiopian university partner suggests that internationalisation and international collaboration do not serve the interests of Ethiopian higher education.

So, my expectation is that we’re going to make a significant difference on how things have been performed previously. It could be in terms of the role of both partners in the project, it could be in terms of what will change afterwards. (Ethiopian university partner)

These hopes align with Knight’s ( Citation 2015 ) diplomacy framework in that they are focused on the potential good of international research collaboration and point to possibilities for true co-operation and bridging divisions to bring forth positive change.

These reflections resulting from the collective, reflexive deliberations that took place at our initial meeting were important because they formed the basis upon which we decided our future courses of action (Archer, Citation 2007 ). For example, through our reflections, we became aware of structural constraints present in our work environments, such as having limited time allocated for research collaboration within our university positions. By understanding this constraint, we were better prepared to be understanding when teaching or other research obligations took precedence. This also had implications for how we structured our work, such as agreeing on guidelines and responsibilities when co-writing. Another example is how we came to identify common interests and values in collaboration after sharing our individual interests and values. By identifying these, we were able to prioritise them and include them as part of our collaboration culture. For example, by the Ethiopian university partners describing the conditions of international collaboration that they had experienced previously, and by expressing the importance for our collaboration to be relevant to the needs and interests of their university and higher education system, the Swedish university partners were able to come to a better understanding of the necessity for the collaboration to be applicable to the Ethiopian context. This knowledge and understanding shaped our future discussions and decisions when co-writing and preparing research project applications. These examples illustrate how this process of collective, reflexive deliberation enabled us to “selectively mediate structural and cultural properties and also creatively contribute to their transformation” (Archer, Citation 2003 , p. 38) while engaging in the collaboration that is approached from a framework of diplomacy (Knight, Citation 2015 ).

Following our initial meeting where these reflections took place, we had a second meeting in Mekelle, Ethiopia during December 2019. At this meeting, we began discussing ideas for this article and for writing a joint research project application. Then by March 2020, COVID-19 took hold of most of the world. For us as academics, this meant changed work routines without forewarning. For the Swedish university partners, campus teaching was moved online with just a day’s notice, access to university buildings and services became limited, and seminars, conferences and work travel were unexpectedly cancelled. The Ethiopian partners also faced similar and even more challenges. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, without prior notice and preparation, lockdown was declared and everyone was obligated to stay home. Universities were closed and students went home. Unlike the Swedish partners, who managed to work from home, the Ethiopian partners did not have such an opportunity. This was due to most residential houses not having an internet connection. Moreover, since November 2020, a political and military conflict in the northern part of Ethiopia (Tigray) totally detached the Ethiopian partners from any kind of communication. Initially, they were without internet services for six consecutive months, and at the time of writing this article, connectivity has remained intermittent. Consequently, many university events, plans and activities were cancelled.

These new work conditions understandably put additional constraints on our efforts to collaborate. Our attention moved from our collaboration to focusing on the implications of the changed routines to our teaching, administrative and other research obligations. Synchronous communication was greatly reduced during spring 2020 and asynchronous communication became more dispersed. As the pandemic dragged on through autumn 2020, it became clear that our planned meeting in Sweden for October 2020 was effectively cancelled due to travel restrictions and the political and military situation in Ethiopia. Despite the setbacks experienced in this period, the pandemic brought new opportunities for collaboration. For example, we were able to jointly present at a conference that was held online, an experience that otherwise would likely not have taken place.

The reflexive deliberations (Archer, Citation 2007 ) from our initial meeting not only allowed us to learn about the existing enablements and constraints that we anticipated would impact our collaboration, but also prepared us with knowledge and understanding for how to collaborate during these unforeseen and uncertain times. For example, while the completion and publication of this article was delayed due to the above conditions, there was mutual understanding and trust that when conditions improved our work would be taken up again. As Archer ( Citation 2003 ) wrote, “Reflexivity tends to be taken for granted that its implications are rarely reflected upon themselves” (p. 19). Our experience of initiating and engaging in collaboration during this period underscores the importance for reflexive deliberation to be practiced from the start of a collaboration.

Successful international research collaborations are those where positive relationship building, trust, a willingness to learn and mutual respect are central. In contrast, unsuccessful collaborations are those where the needs of either partner are neglected. The problems with unsuccessful international research collaborations in higher education relate often to poor relationship building, lack of purpose, planning, leadership and an unwillingness to learn to adapt and to accept new cultures. The main problem underlying these unsuccessful collaborations is that they are often superficially planned and not based on scientific literature, and in particular, there is a lack of understanding about the structural and cultural contexts in which each partner conducts their work. The more serious problem relates to an unwillingness to learn and to listen to each partner’s needs, concerns and motivations, which can impede the successful and sustainable outcome of the collaboration.

Successful collaborations between the North and South involve projects initiated by the South and supported by the North. Such projects are exemplified by their continuity and longevity long after the completion of the project. This study provided an example of the relationship-building process between academics from Swedish and Ethiopian universities towards the development of a research collaboration. By initiating collaboration from a framework of diplomacy, we were able to catch imbalances in structural and cultural supports within our project team and to identify individual and common motivations for initiating collaboration. This gave us the insight and awareness we needed to initiate a research collaboration that served our collective and individual interests and benefitted those of us with the greatest need.

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

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Rice phytobiome engineering could lead to greater food security, says IRRI and UC Davis scientists

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Scientists from the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and the University of California Davis recently published a groundbreaking paper that detailed an innovative pathway for exploring and manipulating the rice phytobiome to contribute to rice resilience and productivity, which in turn could help secure the global food supply in the face of climate change.

The rice phytobiome includes various organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and insects that interact with the rice plant. These interactions can influence the plant's health, stress tolerance, and nutrient acquisition. Environmental factors like soil conditions and climate also affect the rice phytobiome. A deeper understanding of these dynamics can lead to innovative agricultural practices and strategies.

The article, Exploring and exploiting the rice phytobiome to tackle climate change challenges , was published in Plant Communications on 03 September 2024. It presented that climate change poses a significant threat to rice production, as it affects agroecosystems by altering environmental conditions and microbial communities that support plant growth. By using novel, data-driven, and systems-level approaches, the rice phytobiome can be accurately reprogrammed to combat climate change threats through the development of prescriptive and predictive analytics for next-generation precision rice agricultural systems.

“Recent research highlights the importance of signaling mechanisms within the rice phytobiome,” said Dr. Jauhar Ali, IRRI Principal Scientist and one of the authors of the article. “Plant hormones like salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, and ethylene regulate the plant's defense responses, while root exudates and secondary metabolites influence microbial communities in the soil. These interactions are essential for helping rice plants cope with stresses such as drought, pests, and diseases. By manipulating these signaling pathways and microbial communities, we can enhance rice plants' ability to thrive under challenging environmental conditions.”

The paper emphasizes the importance of a holistic, system-wide approach to manipulating the phytobiome to ensure sustainable benefits and minimize disruptions to the ecosystem. Recent advances in synthetic biology and microbiome engineering allow for the manipulation of these microbial communities. There is also the potential of machine learning and deep learning techniques to process and analyze large, complex datasets.

“Manipulating the rice phytobiome offers a promising pathway to improve rice production and resilience in the face of climate change,” said Dr. Ali. “By employing cutting-edge techniques such as genetic engineering, synthetic biology, and artificial intelligence, microbial communities can be engineered to boost rice stress tolerance and nutrient uptake. These advances could lead to more sustainable rice farming practices that ensure food security for future generations.”