importance of cross cultural communication essay

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Why cross-cultural communication is important—and how to practice it effectively

Many bachelor’s degree programs require students to complete a few courses in a foreign language; learning another language can be a vital skill in many careers as well as a way to gain broader perspective on culture and global connections. But language instruction often requires an immersive and intensive classroom schedule that isn’t well-suited to part-time study or the flexible online platform offered by Penn LPS Online’s Bachelor of Applied Arts and Sciences (BAAS) degree.

“When we were thinking about what the new Bachelor of Applied Arts and Sciences would look like, we thought that the residential language program didn’t work as well to address the needs of a very diverse student body which might not even be located here in Philadelphia,” recalls Dr. Christina Frei, Academic Director of the Penn Language Center . “We needed to figure out a way to still have a discussion about language in the degree. I proposed that we offer a course that focuses on the role that language plays in intercultural communication.”

The resulting course is one of the foundational requirements of the BAAS degree. The purpose of ICOM 100: Intercultural Communication is to develop effective communication skills and cultural understanding globally as well as within diverse communities.  While the Intercultural Communication course does not replace the intensive language instruction necessary to speak and read in another language, it does develop the intercultural perspective, which is vital to learning a new language and engaging meaningfully with people across language and cultural differences. “Language is embedded and highly connected to culture. One cannot understand language outside of cultural or vice versa,” says Frei. “I designed the course to pique students' interest in the power of language and the complexities of language and culture.”

What is intercultural communication?

Intercultural communication has become a key concept in language instruction, but only recently. “In the last 20 years—and particularly in the last 10 years—we really understand more about the role that language plays in identity,” says Frei. In her many roles at Penn, Frei ensures that language and cultural studies meet the standards of the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL), which has started to center identity and culture. At the Penn Language Center, which houses language instruction that falls outside of established foreign language departments such as the Department of Germanic Languages and Literatures (for which Frei is the Undergraduate Chair), Frei oversees course offerings and learning opportunities in languages spoken in Africa and South Asia as well as American Sign Language and even language instruction for professional use (such as Spanish for health professionals and Chinese for business). Frei is also the Executive Director of Language Instruction for the School of Arts and Sciences, and in that capacity, she oversees language education across Penn to ensure professional standards are met and a cohesive pedagogical approach is achieved. “Over the last 10 years, the best practices have changed, and ACTFL really has begun to look towards intercultural communication,” says Frei.

To understand what intercultural communication is, it helps to understand culture as something active and pervasive. “Culture is a verb,” says Frei, citing one of the assigned texts from her course: Intercultural Communication: A Critical Introduction by Ingrid Piller. “You’re doing culture all the time,” explains Frei. “In order to become aware of what culture actually is, you have to really develop a critical eye to look at your perceptions and your surroundings.” Doing culture can include ways of speaking and acting but also thoughts and beliefs you’re not even aware of—although you’re most likely to become aware of how you “do culture” when you interact with someone who “does culture” differently. Intercultural communication encompasses a vast array of verbal and nonverbal interactions that may take place on such occasions: learning a new language or visiting another country are common examples but joining a new workplace or participating in a community organization with members of diverse backgrounds can also engage intercultural communication skills.

“If you want to do culture interculturally, you cannot do it by exclusion,” adds Frei. “Inclusivity, to me, is the new word for being truly multicultural, to really be open-minded and understanding about the differences that human beings have in their lives, their languages, and in their beliefs and cultural practices.”

The importance of intercultural communication

Intercultural communication plays a pivotal role in our increasingly globalized world, where people from various cultural backgrounds interact regularly. It is of paramount importance as it facilitates understanding and collaboration among individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds, helping to break down the walls of stereotypes and assumptions that can hinder effective communication. In a world where cultural diversity is the norm, effective intercultural communication fosters empathy, reduces misunderstandings arising from differing cultural norms, and promotes tolerance. By embracing the nuances of different cultures, we bridge divides and harness the rich tapestry of perspectives, ideas, and talents that diverse populations bring to the table. It is a cornerstone for successful diplomacy, international business, and peaceful coexistence. Intercultural communication promotes unity in diversity, enhancing our collective capacity to address global challenges and build a more inclusive and harmonious global community.

How do you develop intercultural understanding in the classroom?

To provide a broad range of opportunities for students to analyze examples of “doing culture,” the Intercultural Communication course incorporates an array of readings, videos, and websites to explore different ways of expressing and interpreting culture through language. There are recorded interviews with scholars and activists who have compelling perspectives on how to “do culture” as a member of a minority population: a Lakota historian who protested the construction of a pipeline in the Standing Rock Indian Reservation, an applied linguist involved in a social impact project with a Bangladeshi community in Philadelphia, and the director of the American Sign Language program at Penn who shares insight about language and culture within the deaf community. In addition to the Intercultural Communication textbook and assorted reading assignments, the students read The Enigma of Arrival , V.S. Naipaul’s autobiographical novel about his journey from the island of Trinidad to the countryside of England. “It’s a fabulous book that I hope the students enjoy reading,” says Frei. “It’s one person’s story about coming to a new place and doing culture from the outside, so to speak. There is a lot of self-observation and self-reflectivity about how, as he is doing culture, he begins to understand himself and the place differently.”

Students analyze and reflect on these cultural artifacts in class discussions and written assignments. “The workshops that I usually offer here at Penn and the courses I teach have a communicative approach with a lot of reflection, so that's part of the Intercultural Communication course as well,” says Frei. “We do tons of personal reflection because it’s important to know what your own prejudices are, what your own value system is, what your own sense-making is, and what your own analysis is, and what your own observations are.” In particular, students are asked to step back and observe how they communicate with others, from workplace and religious communities to interactions with friends and family to brief encounters at the supermarket. “It's almost like an anthropological journal, if you wish,” says Frei. ”It builds a particular kind of sensitivity to observe without judgment what you’re thinking and how you react, which helps you to be inclusive, to have empathy, and to understand the people you engage with.”

Though the course is asynchronous, Frei says, discussion boards and reflective practices bring students into the discussion and require them to communicate clearly and thoughtfully with one another. “Perhaps that’s the beauty of an online course,” says Frei. “You really do need to listen or read and pay attention to what your peers are saying. I think they really will gain an understanding of what intercultural communication means to each of them.”

“The students are actually creating the knowledge of the course,” she adds. “I'm giving them a tool kit, but what they actually do with it is up to them—and that’s very exciting.”

Tips for effective cross-cultural communication

To succeed in the course, Frei emphasizes that students need to pace themselves and schedule themselves plenty of time to think, reflect, and feel as they go through the coursework. “These are not just assignments where you can just check a box and you're done. These are thinking pieces,” says Frei. “Students need to really make sure to put some time aside because they have to think in order to do the work. They need to allow themselves to be open-minded about themselves and perhaps, in their own thinking, surprise themselves.”

Time management gives students the space needed to develop their practice of reflection, which is an important skill for communication in any context. For Bachelor of Applied Arts and Sciences students, Frei notes, reflection is built-in throughout the entire degree, culminating in the ePortfolio degree requirement . “It makes complete sense,” she says. “The ePortfolio is not just a curated collection of your best work. It’s a curated collection that you thought about and where you reflected on your benchmarks, your rubrics, your qualifiers for your best work.” Likewise, reflection is a vital step in thinking about culture and language.

But to Frei, reflection is deeply entwined with the concept of self-care. “Ask yourself: How can I be healthy emotionally, intellectually, physically? How does that all come into the mix?” says Frei. In her German classes, Frei will often ask students to complete a self-assessment of their reading practices: where do they typically sit, how focused do they usually feel, what kinds of emotions to do they experience and when. By being attuned to those details, says Frei, a student can make choices that will help them both enjoy and absorb more in their reading. Likewise, when it comes to language and culture, “self-care is key,” she says. “Self-reflection and understanding your own practices, your own cultural beliefs, your own cultural practices and perspectives will help you to sensitize you.”

“This is a course that shares knowledge through books and instructional design. You’ll gain insights into minority discourses and you’ll learn about communication and language. Those skills are transferable to other courses,” says Frei. “But it’s also a place where you can get to know yourself a little bit more. I think that could be really helpful.”

For more information about this unique online degree and its requirements, visit the Penn LPS Online feature “What is a Bachelor of Applied Arts and Sciences degree? ”

Dive deeper into all the opportunities available through Penn LPS Online by visiting our homepage .

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Essay on Cross-Cultural Communication & Differences

Explore the intercultural difference with our cross-cultural communication essay sample! Here, you can find information on the importance of the topic and gain inspiration for your multicultural communication essay!

Cross-Cultural Communication as a Topic

Cross-cultural differences, communicating across cultures: essay conclusion, cross-cultural communication faq.

Cross-cultural communication is a crucial success component nowadays. Globalization and integration contribute to the importance of it. 

Cross-cultural contact is vital on all levels. Relations across borders are no longer unusual. Businesses all over the world strive to get into the global arena. Countries cooperate with foreign parties.

Any person can get communicate with foreigners regularly. Expertise in the field is a competitive advantage. This multicultural communication essay focuses on cross-cultural differences. It provides examples of cross-cultural communication. 

Intercultural contact has become a popular essay topic these days. Pupils and students of different levels need to elaborate on it. One of the benefits is that we start realizing how important the topic is. 

Interpersonal contact occurs when any kind of information gets from one person to another. We can define the process as a sender-recipient transmission of ideas. 

During intercultural communication, people from different cultures understand each other’s messages. At least, they should try to do so. Some people seek to only get their point across. They do not pay as much attention to their partner’s ideas. 

Successful interpersonal communication implies various factors. It is connected with many competencies. Some of them are emotional intelligence and conflict management skills.

There are numerous barriers to effective communication. They include both objective and subjective aspects. Subjective factors might be emotional, psychological, connected with perception peculiarities, etc. For instance, the emotional state of the speaker and the receiver affect their perceptions of ideas. Moreover, interlocutors might face a lack of attention and interest. Sometimes the transmitted information seems irrelevant to the receiver, so they do not listen properly. 

Objective barriers might be: 

• Distractions
• Physical disabilities
• Language differences, etc.

Those possible challenges are relevant to any communication. However, they become even more acute when the partners belong to different cultures. There are even more factors that start tuning in. In extreme cases, effective contact might even seem impossible.

Getting on well with people from other cultural settings requires effort. People started realizing that fact long ago. In ancient times, when different tribes had to interact, they faced various challenges. People became aware of culture-specific differences and their impact on communication.

Since then, professionals studied the issue. Psychologists, sociologists, linguists, philosophers, and writers worked on it. All tried to find a key to effective cross-cultural contacts. 

In-depth research on the issue helped create new professions. Some of them are communication coaches, negotiation consultants, etc. There are many classes, webinars, conferences, and other events on the topic. As the study field developed, textbooks and guidelines appeared. We can choose from many books by businessmen, psychologists, and other specialists.

Colleges are integrating the subject into their study programs. Students can explore it in any country in the world. There are Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Ph.D. programs related to cross-cultural communication.

Businessmen are aware of the importance of that topic, too. Effective intercultural communication implies the success of business negotiations. 

A lack of the appropriate skills causes most conflicts in business. Negotiators cannot contact effectively because of culture-specific issues. It leads to a loss of business opportunities. An essential ingredient for building rapport in business is substantial cultural awareness.

Communication is imperfect due to culture-specific differences. The reasons are distinctions in language, behavior, etiquette, non-verbal signals, etc. 

One of the most apparent differences is a linguistic one. People from different countries might face language barriers. Insufficient language competence might lead to conflicts. Translators and interpreters can help the parties understand each other. These experts need specialized culture-specific knowledge to succeed.

There are many culture-specific linguistic elements. Some are metaphors, proverbs, and references to national literature and folklore. These things are difficult to translate without specific knowledge. One should be aware of the cultural implications behind such words.

There is such a phenomenon as culture-bound lacunae. These words denote some concepts that do not exist in the other party’s culture. There is no adequate analog in the other language.

Problems may arise even if both speakers use one language. There are many differences in the use of it. For instance, both speakers may be from the US, the UK, and Australia. They will see many variations in the vocabulary of each other. All parties can speak English and have trouble understanding each other.

Insufficient cultural awareness leads to conflicts. One may offend a person of a different culture without a purpose. It happens because of stereotypes, prejudices, and inadequate perceptions.

False expectations based on stereotypes and prejudices lead to false assumptions. People hear what they expect to hear rather than what others mean. This leads to incorrect conclusions. 

Cultural differences are apparent when comparing the norms of conduct. The rules of social interaction vary in different countries. Sometimes they differ even in the regions of the same country. The rules of etiquette include: 

• Business cards exchange;
• Non-verbal signals and their meaning;
• Appropriate topics for small talk and more.

Those differences are apparent in negotiations where the parties are from the East and West. For example, Americans can be amazed by the Chinese specifics, and vice versa. 

Businessmen are to communicate with people from other countries. In these cases, they should make sure to explore the cultural specifics of their partners. Some other aspects that can vary in different cultures are:

• How freely one expresses emotions;
• The concept of personal space;
• The concept of time;
• Decision-making process;
• The way people perceive presents;
• How negotiators structure their meetings (whether they stick to the agenda or “go with the flow”), etc.

All this proves how difficult it is to communicate across cultural borders. 

Such communication is valuable because one can break stereotypes, enrich their perception, and learn new concepts. Stereotyping may seem comforting. Still, its negative impact is more important than the benefits. Prejudices and false expectations lead to a limited understanding of each other.

One should be open-minded and eager to embrace cultural specifics. That is the key to successful cross-cultural interaction. 

Contact between cultures is essential in our everyday lives. Some people communicate better than others. Some have conflicts, whereas others get on well. It is true when the two parties are from different cultural settings.

People presenting different cultures face numerous objective and subjective barriers. It is possible to overcome them. In the modern world, everyone should be aware of culture-specific differences and ready to embrace them.

Effective intercultural communication is crucial. It leads to good relationships, successful business deals, emotional enrichment, and more.

What does cross-cultural communication mean?

Cross-cultural communication is an interaction where the parties belong to different cultural settings. It is a vital component of modern life. Globalization and Internet technologies facilitate these contacts. Negotiations between American and Japanese business partners are cross-cultural. Another example is talking to a foreigner when traveling.

Why is cross-cultural communication important?

At present, a well-known saying, “It’s a small world,” has become as accurate as ever. Infrastructure and Internet technologies connect different parts of the world. People from various cultural settings interact all the time. Building a rapport with foreigners is only possible if we respect their cultural specifics.

What are the challenges of cross-cultural communication?

Naturally, people understand the world in different ways. Parties face various challenges of subjective and objective hindering factors. The culture we belong to shapes our perception. Every culture generates prejudice, stereotypes, specific etiquette rules, and more. Cross-cultural contact is much more complicated due to culture-specific differences.

How do you manage cross-cultural communication?

Managing cross-cultural contacts is one of the main tasks for present-day businessmen. Interaction with foreigners takes place often in our day-to-day lives. In successful contact, many factors are essential. We should research, respect, and embrace culture-specific differences. Multiple cross-cultural communication essays, textbooks, guides, classes, and other sources exist. They help to understand the concept better.

What are the principles of cross-cultural communication?

Different specialists list multiple principles. The common thing is that the parties should be open-minded, curious, respectful, and friendly. Intercultural communication breeds issues of verbal and non-verbal contact. The parties should be aware of those potential challenges. Another principle is to control your behavior and not offend others.

• Cultural competency in the delivery of health services for Indigenous people (Australian Government)
• Definitions of Cultural Competence (Georgetown University)
• Multicultural Collaboration (Community Toolbox)
• Culture Matters (The Peace Corps Cross-Cultural Workbook)
• How to Improve Cross-Cultural Communication in the Workplace (Northeastern University)

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31 Cross-Cultural Communication

What is culture.

Learning Objectives

Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• distinguish between surface and deep culture in the context of the iceberg model,
• describe how cross-cultural communication is shaped by cultural diversity,
• explain how the encoding and decoding process takes shape in cross-cultural communication,
• describe circumstances that require effective cross-cultural communication, and
• describe approaches to enhance interpersonal communication in cross-cultural contexts.

We may be tempted to think of intercultural communication as interaction between two people from different countries. While two distinct national passports communicate a key part of our identity non-verbally, what happens when two people from two different parts of the same country communicate? Indeed, intercultural communication happens between subgroups of the same country. Whether it be the distinctions between high and low Germanic dialects, the differences in perspective between an Eastern Canadian and a Western Canadian, or the rural-versus-urban dynamic, our geographic, linguistic, educational, sociological, and psychological traits influence our communication.

Culture is part of the very fabric of our thought, and we cannot separate ourselves from it, even as we leave home and begin to define ourselves in new ways through work and achievements. Every business or organization has a culture, and within what may be considered a global culture, there are many subcultures or co-cultures. For example, consider the difference between the sales and accounting departments in a corporation. We can quickly see two distinct groups with their own symbols, vocabulary, and values. Within each group there may also be smaller groups, and each member of each department comes from a distinct background that in itself influences behaviour and interaction.

Suppose we have a group of students who are all similar in age and educational level. Do gender and the societal expectations of roles influence interaction? Of course! There will be differences on multiple levels. Among these students not only do the boys and girls communicate in distinct ways, but there will also be differences among the boys as well as differences among the girls. Even within a group of sisters, common characteristics exist, but they will still have differences, and all these differences contribute to intercultural communication. Our upbringing shapes us. It influences our worldview, what we value, and how we interact with each other. We create culture, and it defines us.

Culture involves beliefs, attitudes, values, and traditions that are shared by a group of people. More than just the clothes we wear, the movies we watch, or the video games we play, all representations of our environment are part of our culture. Culture also involves the psychological aspects and behaviours that are expected of members of our group. For example, if we are raised in a culture where males speak while females are expected to remain silent, the context of the communication interaction governs behaviour. From the choice of words (message), to how we communicate (in person, or by e-mail), to how we acknowledge understanding with a nod or a glance (non-verbal feedback), to the internal and external interference, all aspects of communication are influenced by culture.

Culture consists of the shared beliefs, values, and assumptions of a group of people who learn from one another and teach to others that their behaviours, attitudes, and perspectives are the correct ways to think, act, and feel.

It is helpful to think about culture in the following five ways:

• Culture is learned.
• Culture is shared.
• Culture is dynamic.
• Culture is systemic.
• Culture is symbolic.

The iceberg, a commonly used metaphor to describe culture, is great for illustrating the tangible and the intangible. When talking about culture, most people focus on the “tip of the iceberg,” which is visible but makes up just 10 percent of the object. The rest of the iceberg, 90 percent of it, is below the waterline. Many business leaders, when addressing intercultural situations, pick up on the things they can see—things on the “tip of the iceberg.” Things like food, clothing, and language difference are easily and immediately obvious, but focusing only on these can mean missing or overlooking deeper cultural aspects such as thought patterns, values, and beliefs that are under the surface. Solutions to any interpersonal miscommunication that results become temporary bandages covering deeply rooted conflicts.

Cultural Membership

How do you become a member of a culture, and how do you know when you are full member? So much of communication relies on shared understanding, that is, shared meanings of words, symbols, gestures, and other communication elements. When we have a shared understanding, communication comes easily, but when we assign different meanings to these elements, we experience communication challenges.

What shared understandings do people from the same culture have? Researchers who study cultures around the world have identified certain characteristics that define a culture. These characteristics are expressed in different ways, but they tend to be present in nearly all cultures:

• rites of initiation
• common history and traditions
• values and principles
• purpose and mission
• symbols, boundaries, and status indicators

Terms to Know

Although they are often used interchangeably, it is important to note the distinctions among multicultural, cross-cultural, and intercultural communication.

Multiculturalism is a rather surface approach to the coexistence and tolerance of different cultures. It takes the perspective of “us and the others” and typically focuses on those tip-of-the-iceberg features of culture, thus highlighting and accepting some differences but maintaining a “safe” distance. If you have a multicultural day at work, for example, it usually will feature some food, dance, dress, or maybe learning about how to say a few words or greetings in a sampling of cultures.

Cross-cultural approaches typically go a bit deeper, the goal being to be more diplomatic or sensitive. They account for some interaction and recognition of difference through trade and cooperation, which builds some limited understanding—such as, for instance, bowing instead of shaking hands, or giving small but meaningful gifts. Even using tools like Hofstede, as you’ll learn about in this chapter, gives us some overarching ideas about helpful things we can learn when we compare those deeper cultural elements across cultures. Sadly, they are not always nuanced comparisons; a common drawback of cross-cultural comparisons is that we can wade into stereotyping and ethnocentric attitudes—judging other cultures by our own cultural standards—if we aren’t mindful.

Lastly, when we look at intercultural approaches, we are well beneath the surface of the iceberg, intentionally making efforts to better understand other cultures as well as ourselves. An intercultural approach is not easy, often messy, but when you get it right, it is usually far more rewarding than the other two approaches. The intercultural approach is difficult and effective for the same reasons; it acknowledges complexity and aims to work through it to a positive, inclusive, and equitable outcome.

Whenever we encounter someone, we notice similarities and differences. While both are important, it is often the differences that contribute to communication troubles. We don’t see similarities and differences only on an individual level. In fact, we also place people into in-groups and out-groups based on the similarities and differences we perceive. Recall what you read about social identity and discrimination in the last chapter—the division of people into in-groups and out-groups is where your social identity can result in prejudice or discrimination if you are not cautious about how you frame this.

We tend to react to someone we perceive as a member of an out-group based on the characteristics we attach to the group rather than the individual (Allen, 2010). In these situations, it is more likely that stereotypes and prejudice will influence our communication. This division of people into opposing groups has been the source of great conflict around the world, as with, for example, the division between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland; between Croats, Serbs, and Bosnian Muslims in the former Yugoslavia; and between males and females during women’s suffrage. Divisions like these can still cause conflict on an individual level. Learning about difference and why it matters will help us be more competent communicators and help to prevent conflict.

Theories of Cross-Cultural Communication

Social psychologist Geert Hofstede (Hofstede, 1982, 2001, 2005) is one of the most well known researchers in cross-cultural communication and management. His website offers useful tools and explanations about a range of cultural dimensions that can be used to compare various dominant national cultures. Hofstede’s theory places cultural dimensions on a continuum that range from high to low and really only make sense when the elements are compared to another culture. Hofstede’s dimensions include the following:

• Power Distance: High-power distance means a culture accepts and expects a great deal of hierarchy; low-power distance means the president and janitor could be on the same level.
• Individualism: High individualism means that a culture tends to put individual needs ahead of group or collective needs.
• Uncertainty Avoidance: High uncertainty avoidance means a culture tends to go to some lengths to be able to predict and control the future. Low uncertainty avoidance means the culture is more relaxed about the future, which sometimes shows in being willing to take risks.
• Masculinity: High masculinity relates to a society valuing traits that were traditionally considered masculine, such as competition, aggressiveness, and achievement. A low masculinity score demonstrates traits that were traditionally considered feminine, such as cooperation, caring, and quality of life.
• Long-term orientation: High long-term orientation means a culture tends to take a long-term, sometimes multigenerational view when making decisions about the present and the future. Low long-term orientation is often demonstrated in cultures that want quick results and that tend to spend instead of save.
• Indulgence: High indulgence means cultures that are OK with people indulging their desires and impulses. Low indulgence or restraint-based cultures value people who control or suppress desires and impulses.

As mentioned previously, these tools can provide wonderful general insight into making sense of understanding differences and similarities across key below-the-surface cross-cultural elements. However, when you are working with people, they may or may not conform to what’s listed in the tools. For example, if you are Canadian but grew up in a tight-knit Amish community, your value system may be far more collective than individualist. Or if you are Aboriginal, your long-term orientation may be far higher than that of mainstream Canada. It’s also important to be mindful that in a Canadian workplace, someone who is non-white or wears clothes or religious symbols based on their ethnicity may be far more “mainstream” under the surface. The only way you know for sure is to communicate interpersonally by using active listening, keeping an open mind, and avoiding jumping to conclusions.

Trompenaars

Fons Trompenaars is another researcher who came up with a different set of cross-cultural measures. A more detailed explanation of his seven dimensions of culture can be found at this website (The Seven Dimensions of Culture, n.d.), but we provide a brief overview below:

• Universalism vs. Particularism: the extent that a culture is more prone to apply rules and laws as a way of ensuring fairness, in contrast to a culture that looks at the specifics of context and looks at who is involved, to ensure fairness. The former puts the task first; the latter puts the relationship first.
• Individualism vs. Communitarianism: the extent that people prioritize individual interests versus the community’s interest.
• Specific vs. Diffuse: the extent that a culture prioritizes a head-down, task-focused approach to doing work, versus an inclusive, overlapping relationship between life and work.
• Neutral vs. Emotional: the extent that a culture works to avoid showing emotion versus a culture that values a display or expression of emotions.
• Achievement vs. Ascription: the degree to which a culture values earned achievement in what you do versus ascribed qualities related to who you are based on elements like title, lineage, or position.
• Sequential Time vs. Synchronous Time: the degree to which a culture prefers doing things one at time in an orderly fashion versus preferring a more flexible approach to time with the ability to do many things at once.
• Internal Direction vs. Outer Direction: the degree to which members of a culture believe they have control over themselves and their environment versus being more conscious of how they need to conform to the external environment.

Like Hofstede’s work, Trompenaars’s dimensions help us understand some of those beneath-the-surface-of-the-iceberg elements of culture. It’s equally important to understand our own cultures as it is to look at others, always being mindful that our cultures, as well as others, are made up of individuals.

Ting-Toomey

Stella Ting-Toomey’s face negotiation theory builds on some of the cross-cultural concepts you’ve already learned, such as, for example, individual versus collective cultures. When discussing face negotiation theory, face means your identity, your image, how you look or come off to yourself and others (communicationtheory.org, n.d.). The theory says that this concern for “face” is something that is common across every culture, but various cultures—especially Eastern versus Western cultures—approach this concern in different ways. Individualist cultures, for example tend to be more concerned with preserving their own face, while collective cultures tend to focus more on preserving others’ faces. Loss of face leads to feelings of embarrassment or identity erosion, whereas gaining or maintaining face can mean improved status, relations, and general positivity. Actions to preserve or reduce face is called facework. Power distance is another concept you’ve already learned that is important to this this theory. Most collective cultures tend to have more hierarchy or a higher power distance when compared to individualist cultures. This means that maintaining the face of others at a higher level than yours is an important part of life. This is contrasted with individualist cultures, where society expects you to express yourself, make your opinion known, and look out for number one. This distinction becomes really important in interpersonal communication between people whose cultural backgrounds have different approaches to facework; it usually leads to conflict. Based on this dynamic, the following conflict styles typically occur:

• Domination: dominating or controlling the conflict (individualist approach)
• Avoiding: dodging the conflict altogether (collectivist approach)
• Obliging: yielding to the other person (collectivist approach)
• Compromising: a give-and-take negotiated approach to solving the conflict (individualist approach)
• Integrating: a collaborative negotiated approach to solving the conflict (individualist approach)

Another important facet of this theory involves high-context versus low-context cultures. High-context cultures are replete with implied meanings beyond the words on the surface and even body language that may not be obvious to people unfamiliar with the context. Low-context cultures are typically more direct and tend to use words to attempt to convey precise meaning. For example, an agreement in a high-context culture might be verbal because the parties know each other’s families, histories, and social position. This knowledge is sufficient for the agreement to be enforced. No one actually has to say, “I know where you live. If you don’t hold up your end of the bargain, …” because the shared understanding is implied and highly contextual. A low-context culture usually requires highly detailed, written agreements that are signed by both parties, sometimes mediated through specialists like lawyers, as a way to enforce the agreement. This is low context because the written agreement spells out all the details so that not much is left to the imagination or “context.”

Verbal and Non-Verbal Differences

Cultures have different ways of verbally expressing themselves. For example, consider the people of the United Kingdom. Though English is spoken throughout the UK, the accents can be vastly different from one city or county to the next. If you were in conversation with people from each of the four countries that make up the UK—England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, you would find that each person pronounces words differently. Even though they all speak English, each has their own accent, slang terms, speaking volume, metaphors, and other differences. You would even find this within the countries themselves. A person who grew up in the south of England has a different accent than someone from the north, for example. This can mean that it is challenging for people to understand one another clearly, even when they are from the same country!

While we may not have such distinctive differences in verbal delivery within Canada, we do have two official languages, as well as many other languages in use within our borders. This inevitably means that you’ll communicate with people who have different accents than you do, or those who use words and phrases that you don’t recognize. For example, if you’re Canadian, you’re probably familiar with slang terms like toque (a knitted hat), double-double (as in, a coffee with two creams and two sugars—preferably from Tim Hortons), parkade (parking garage), and toonie (a two-dollar coin), but your friends from other countries might respond with quizzical looks when you use these words in conversation!

When communicating with someone who has a different native language or accent than you do, avoid using slang terms and be conscious about speaking clearly. Slow down, and choose your words carefully. Ask questions to clarify anything that you don’t understand, and close the conversation by checking that everything is clear to the other person.

Cultures also have different non-verbal ways of delivering and interpreting information. For example, some cultures may treat personal space differently than do people in North America, where we generally tend to stay as far away from one another as possible. For example, if you get on an empty bus or subway car and the next person who comes on sits in the seat right next to you, you might feel discomfort, suspicion, or even fear. In a different part of the world this behaviour might be considered perfectly normal. Consequently, when people from cultures with different approaches to space spend time in North America, they can feel puzzled at why people aim for so much distance. They may tend to stand closer to other people or feel perfectly comfortable in crowds, for example.

This tendency can also come across in the level of acceptable physical contact. For example, kissing someone on the cheek as a greeting is typical in France and Spain—and could even be a method of greeting in a job interview. In North America, however, we typically use a handshake during a formal occasion and apologize if we accidentally touch a stranger’s shoulder as we brush past. In contrast, Japanese culture uses a non-contact form of greeting—the bow—to demonstrate respect and honour.

Meaning and Mistranslation

Culturally influenced differences in language and meaning can lead to some interesting encounters, ranging from awkward to informative to disastrous. In terms of awkwardness, you have likely heard stories of companies that failed to exhibit communication competence in their naming and/or advertising of products in another language. For example, in Taiwan, Pepsi used the slogan “Come Alive With Pepsi,” only to find out later that, when translated, it meant, “Pepsi brings your ancestors back from the dead” (Kwintessential, 2012). Similarly, American Motors introduced a new car called the Matador to the Puerto Rican market, only to learn that Matador means “killer,” which wasn’t very comforting to potential buyers.

At a more informative level, the words we use to give positive reinforcement are culturally relative. In Canada and the United Kingdom, for example, parents commonly reinforce their child’s behaviour by saying, “Good girl” or “Good boy.” There isn’t an equivalent for such a phrase in other European languages, so the usage in only these two countries has been traced back to the puritan influence on beliefs about good and bad behaviour (Wierzbicka, 2004).

One of the most publicized and deadliest cross-cultural business mistakes occurred in India in 1984. Union Carbide, an American company, controlled a plant used to make pesticides. The company underestimated the amount of cross-cultural training that would be needed to allow the local workers, many of whom were not familiar with the technology or language/jargon used in the instructions for plant operations, to do their jobs. This lack of competent communication led to a gas leak that killed more than 2,000 people and, over time, led to more than 500,000 injuries (Varma, 2012).

Language and Culture

Through living and working in five different countries, one of the authors notes that when you learn a language, you learn a culture. In fact, a language can tell you a lot about a culture if you look closely. Here’s one example:

A native English speaker landed in South Korea and tried to learn the basics of saying hello in the Korean language. Well, it turned out that it wasn’t as simple as saying hello! It depended on whom you are saying hello to. The Korean language has many levels and honorifics that dictate not only what you say but also how you say it and to whom. So, even a mere hello is not straightforward; the words change. For example, if you are saying hello to someone younger or in a lower position, you will use (anyeong); but for a peer at the same level, you will use a different term (anyeoung ha seyo); and a different one still for an elder, superior, or dignitary (anyeong ha shim nikka). As a result, the English speaker learned that in Korea people often ask personal questions upon meeting—questions such as, How old are you? Are you married? What do you do for a living? At first, she thought people were very nosy. Then she realized that it was not so much curiosity driving the questions but, rather, the need to understand how to speak to you in the appropriate way.

In Hofstede’s terms, this adherence to hierarchy or accepted “levels” in society speak to the notion of moving from her home country (Canada) with a comparatively low power distance to a country with a higher power distance. These contrasting norms show that what’s considered normal in a culture is also typically reflected to some degree in the language.

What are the implications of this for interpersonal communication? What are the implications of this for body language (bowing) in the South Korean context? What are the ways to be respectful or formal in your verbal and non-verbal language?

Comparing and Contrasting

How can you prepare to work with people from cultures different than your own? Start by doing your homework. Let’s assume that you have a group of Japanese colleagues visiting your office next week. How could you prepare for their visit? If you’re not already familiar with the history and culture of Japan, this is a good time to do some reading or a little bit of research online. If you can find a few English-language publications from Japan (such as newspapers and magazines), you may wish to read through them to become familiar with current events and gain some insight into the written communication style used.

Preparing this way will help you to avoid mentioning sensitive topics and to show correct etiquette to your guests. For example, Japanese culture values modesty, politeness, and punctuality, so with this information, you can make sure you are early for appointments and do not monopolize conversations by talking about yourself and your achievements. You should also find out what faux pas to avoid. For example, in company of Japanese people, it is customary to pour others’ drinks (another person at the table will pour yours). Also, make sure you do not put your chopsticks vertically in a bowl of rice, as this is considered rude. If you have not used chopsticks before and you expect to eat Japanese food with your colleagues, it would be a nice gesture to make an effort to learn. Similarly, learning a few words of the language (e.g., hello, nice to meet you, thank you, and goodbye) will show your guests that you are interested in their culture and are willing to make the effort to communicate.

If you have a colleague who has travelled to Japan or has spent time in the company of Japanese colleagues before, ask them about their experience so that you can prepare. What mistakes should you avoid? How should you address and greet your colleagues? Knowing the answers to these questions will make you feel more confident when the time comes. But most of all, remember that a little goes a long way. Your guests will appreciate your efforts to make them feel welcome and comfortable. People are, for the most part, kind and understanding, so if you make some mistakes along the way, don’t worry too much. Most people are keen to share their culture with others, so your guests will be happy to explain various practices to you.

You might find that, in your line of work, you are expected to travel internationally. When you visit a country that is different from your own, you might experience culture shock. Defined as “the feeling of disorientation experienced by someone when they are suddenly subjected to an unfamiliar culture, way of life, or set of attitudes” (OxfordDictionaries.com, 2015), it can disorient us and make us feel uncertain when we are in an unfamiliar cultural climate. Have you ever visited a new country and felt overwhelmed by the volume of sensory information coming at you? From new sights and smells to a new language and unfamiliarity with the location, the onset of culture shock is not entirely surprising. To mitigate this, it helps to read as much as you can about the new culture before your visit. Learn some of the language and customs, watch media programs from that culture to familiarize yourself, and do what you can to prepare. But remember not to hold the information you gather too closely. In doing so, you risk going in with stereotypes. As shown in the figure above, going in with an open attitude and choosing to respond to difficulties with active listening and non-judgmental observation typically leads to building rapport, understanding, and positive outcomes over time.

Culture Shock

Experiencing culture shock does not require you to leave Canada. Moving from a rural to an urban centre (or vice versa), from an English-speaking to a French-speaking area, or moving to or from an ethnic enclave can challenge your notion of what it is to be a Canadian.

In one example, one of the authors participated in a language-based homestay in rural Quebec the summer before her first year of university. Prior to this, she had attended an urban high school in Toronto where the majority of her classmates were non-white and into urban music. When she went to take the train and saw that all the other kids were white, listening to alternative music, and playing hackey sack, she began to worry.

When she met her house mother upon arrival, the house mom looked displeased. Out of four students to stay in her home, two were non-white. The students discovered quickly that the house dad was a hunter, evident by the glass cabinet full of shotguns and the mounted moose heads on the wall. To add to all these changes, the students were forbidden to speak English as a way to help make the most of the French language immersion program. About two weeks into the program, the student from Toronto, a black girl, overheard the house mom talking with her roommate, a white girl from London, Ontario. She said, “You know, I was really concerned when I saw that we had a black and an Asian student, because we never had any people like that in our house before, so I didn’t know what to expect. But now, you know especially with your roommate from Toronto, I can see that they’re just like normal people!”

The urban to rural transition was stark, the language immersion was a challenge, and the culture of the other students as well as that of the host family was also a big change. With so many changes happening, one outcome that is consistent with what we know about one aspect of culture shock, is that most of the students on this immersion program reported sleeping way longer hours than usual. It’s but one way for your mind and body to cope with the rigours of culture shock!

Despite all the challenges, however, the benefit for the author was a 30 percent improvement in French language skills—skills that later came in handy during bilingual jobs, trips to France, and the ability to communicate with the global French-speaking community.

A Changing Worldview

One helpful way to develop your intercultural communication competence is to develop sensitivity to intercultural communication issues and best practices. From everything we have learned so far, it may feel complex and overwhelming. The Intercultural Development Continuum is a theory created by Mitchell Hammer (2012) that helps demystify the process of moving from monocultural approaches to intercultural approaches. There are five steps in this transition, and we will give a brief overview of each one below.

See if you can deduce the main points of the overview before expanding the selection.

The first two steps out of five reflect monocultural mindsets, which are ethnocentric. As you recall, ethnocentrism means evaluating other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one’s own culture (OxfordDictionaries.com, 2015).

People who belong to dominant cultural groups in a given society or people who have had very little exposure to other cultures may be more likely to have a worldview that’s more monocultural according to Hammer (2009). But how does this cause problems in interpersonal communication? For one, being blind to the cultural differences of the person you want to communicate with (denial) increases the likelihood that you will encode a message that they won’t decode the way you anticipate, or vice versa.

For example, let’s say culture A considers the head a special and sacred part of the body that others should never touch, certainly not strangers or mere acquaintances. But let’s say in your culture people sometimes pat each other on the head as a sign of respect and caring. So you pat your culture A colleague on the head, and this act sets off a huge conflict.

It would take a great deal of careful communication to sort out such a misunderstanding, but if each party keeps judging the other by their own cultural standards, it’s likely that additional misunderstanding, conflict, and poor communication will transpire.

Using this example, polarization can come into play because now there’s a basis of experience for selective perception of the other culture. Culture A might say that your culture is disrespectful, lacks proper morals, and values, and it might support these claims with anecdotal evidence of people from your culture patting one another on the sacred head!

Meanwhile, your culture will say that culture A is bad-tempered, unintelligent, and angry by nature and that there would be no point in even trying to respect or explain things them.

It’s a simple example, but over time and history, situations like this have mounted and thus led to violence, even war and genocide.

According to Hammer (2009) the majority of people who have taken the IDI inventory, a 50-question questionnaire to determine where they are on the monocultural–intercultural continuum, fall in the category of minimization, which is neither monocultural nor intercultural. It’s the middle-of-the-road category that on one hand recognizes cultural difference but on the other hand simultaneously downplays it. While not as extreme as the first two situations, interpersonal communication with someone of a different culture can also be difficult here because of the same encoding/decoding issues that can lead to inaccurate perceptions. On the positive side, the recognition of cultural differences provides a foundation on which to build and a point from which to move toward acceptance, which is an intercultural mindset.

There are fewer people in the acceptance category than there are in the minimization category, and only a small percentage of people fall into the adaptation category. This means most of us have our work cut out for us if we recognize the value—considering our increasingly global societies and economies—of developing an intercultural mindset as a way to improve our interpersonal communication skill.

In this chapter on cross-cultural communication you learned about culture and how it can complicate interpersonal communication. Culture is learned, shared, dynamic, systemic, and symbolic. You uncovered the distinction between multicultural, cross-cultural, and intercultural approaches and discovered several new terms such as diplomatic, ethnocentric, and in-/out-groups.

From there you went on to examine the work three different cross-cultural theorists including Hofstede, Trompenaars, and Ting-Toomey. After reviewing verbal and non-verbal differences, you went on to compare and contrast by doing your homework on what it might be like to communicate interpersonally with members of another culture and taking a deeper look into culture shock.

Finally, you learned about the stages on the intercultural development continuum that move from an ethnocentric, monocultural worldview to a more intercultural worldview.

The ability to communicate well between cultures is an increasingly sought-after skill that takes time, practice, reflection, and a great deal of work and patience. This chapter has introduced you to several concepts and tools that can put you on the path to further developing your interpersonal skills to give you an edge and better insight in cross-cultural situations.

Key Takeaways and Check In

Learning highlights

• The iceberg model helps to show us that a few easily visible elements of culture are above the surface but that below the surface lie the invisible and numerous elements that make up culture.
• Ethnocentrism is an important word to know; it indicates a mindset that your own culture is superior while others are inferior.
• Whether a culture values individualism or the collective community is a recurring dimension in many cross-cultural communication theories, including those developed by Hofstede, Trompenaars, and Ting-Toomey.
• Language can tell you a great deal about a culture.
• The intercultural development model helps demystify the change from monocultural mindsets to intercultural mindsets.

Further Reading, Links, and Attribution

Further reading and links.

• A student’s reflection on experiencing culture shock .
• Stella Ting-Toomey discusses face negotiation theory in this YouTube video.

Allen, B. (2010). Difference matters: Communicating social identity. Waveland Press.

culture shock. (n.d.). In Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved from http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/culture-shock

ethnocentric. (n.d.). In Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved from http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/ethnocentric .

Face-Negotiation Theory. (n.d.). Communication Theory. Retrieved from http://communicationtheory.org/face-negotiation-theory/ .

Hammer, M.R. (2009). The Intercultural Development Inventory. In M. A. Moodian (Ed.). Contemporary Leadership and Intercultural Competence . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hofstede, G. (1982). Culture’s consequences (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hofstede, G. (2005). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (Revised and expanded 2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Lindner, M. (2013). Edward T. Hall’s Cultural Iceberg. Prezi presentation retrieved from https://prezi.com/y4biykjasxhw/edward-t-halls-cultural-iceberg/?utm_source=prezi-view&utm_medium=ending-bar&utm_content=Title-link&utm_campaign=ending-bar-tryout .

Results of Poor Cross Cultural Awareness . (n.d.) Kwintessential Ltd. Retrieved from   http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/cultural-services/articles/results-of-poor-cross-cultural-awareness.html .

The Seven Dimensions of Culture: Understanding and managing cultural differences. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/seven-dimensions.htm .

Varma, S. (2010, June 20). Arbitrary? 92% of All Injuries Termed Minor . The Times of India. Retrieved from http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-06-20/india/28309628_1_injuries-gases-cases .

Wierzbicka, A. (2004). The English expressions good boy and good girl and cultural models of child rearing. Culture & Psychology, 10 (3), 251‒278.

Attribution Statement (Cross-Cultural Communication)

This chapter is a remix containing content from a variety of sources published under a variety of open licenses, including the following:

Chapter Content

• Original content contributed by the Olds College OER Development Team, of Olds College to Professional Communications Open Curriculum under a CC-BY 4.0 license
• Content created by Anonymous for Understanding Culture; in Cultural Intelligence for Leaders, previously shared at http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/cultural-intelligence-for-leaders/s04-understanding-culture.html under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license
• Derivative work of content created by Anonymous for Intercultural and International Group Communication; in An Introduction to Group Communication, previously shared at http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-group-communication/s07-intercultural-and-internationa.html under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license
• Content created by Anonymous for Language, Society, and Culture; in A Primer on Communication Studies, previously shared at http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/a-primer-on-communication-studies/s03-04-language-society-and-culture.html under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license

Check Your Understandings

• Original assessment items contributed by the Olds College OER Development Team, of Olds College to Professional Communications Open Curriculum under a CC-BY 4.0 license
• Assessment items created by Boundless, for Boundless Managing Diversity Quiz, previously shared at https://www.boundless.com/quizzes/managing-diversity-quiz-2584/ under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license
• Assessment items adapted from The Saylor Foundation for the saylor.org course Comm 311: Intercultural Communication, previously shared at http://saylordotorg.github.io/LegacyExams/COMM/COMM311/COMM311-FinalExam-Answers.html under a CC BY 3.0 US license

Cross-Cultural Communication Copyright © by Olds College. All Rights Reserved.

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Cross-Cultural Communication: Challenges and Solutions Essay

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Cross-cultural communication is an integral part of our livelihood now that humanity is made up of people from a host of cultures and backgrounds some of which are as wide-ranging in mannerisms as they are distinct in their manner of conduct (Schramm, 1954). It is an undertaking that sometimes may be difficult for persons that are undertaking it if there are challenges of the discomfort of these different cultures that may be involved. Some factors explain why it could be difficult to adapt to the cultural language that is used in a community that one is not used to. Such factors include cultural shock, hostility among people one is interacting with, and negative personal attitude among others (Witt, 2006). However, a person can overcome such barriers by having a new outlook on issues he/she is dealing with. In some communities, there is how they pronounce that is accent and how different words mean different things to different circumstances and other words are used by some groups of people and not others. This paper looks in summary at the different aspects of cross-cultural communication and in so doing, looks at the challenges that come with it approach that can be used to counter these challenges.

Different cultures are employed by different persons and nations on a host of issues. For instance, American work practices require that people be punctual and also neat when going to work. From this American culture, other people have tried to adopt the same trend. This has been observed in the way the majority of American cities are operational for twenty-four hours demanding that people work for more than the conventional eight hours a day as is the case in other conventional economies of the world. However, there has been a transition that has slowly been taking over this culture where people have ceased to be formal in their dressing. Other than dressing formally, people time and again are prefer to dress informally but still look smart and official (Montana & Charnov, 2008). In the same breath, non-Americans have equally adopted this informal kind of dressing while attending to their jobs.

Immigration to the US is complicated especially if you have never been there. There are a lot of procedures that one has to fulfill before finally making it to migrate to the US and in most cases, many people have been frustrated by the stringent rules and regulations, and qualifications that they must have thereby given up before getting a pass to go the Land of Opportunity as it is commonly called. It is different when the case is vise verse where there is a lot of ease for Americans to move around the world freely especially into African countries (Schramm, 1954).

From the discussion above, it is evident that immigration to other countries can be hard to handle. This is part of the reason that there have been different NGOs that have been established to step in to help people to secure a visa and migrate as they move around the world and conduct different business in different parts of the world (Teegen, 2003). Take for instance Smile of A Life which is an NGO that is involved in immigration for persons seeking greener pastures for business and work. There are different challenges that such an NGO faces in the running of its day-to-day activities. Some of these challenges include high revenues taxation by countries where they operate (USA), denial of a license to run their organizations in foreign lands, and lack of funds and connections with other countries to foster their expansion and full operation to realize their missions in full (Witt, 2006).

Different approaches are there that can help deal with some of these challenges to varying degrees of appropriateness. These organizations may begin by learning from existent organizations that are already in operation in the countries of interest to understand how these operating organizations manage it there. There are avenues also through conferences and seminars where some NGOs can come and discuss different issues and share their challenges and from such healthy discussion, come up with solutions to some of those challenges (Teegen, 2003). For the case making the organization known, marketing is very vital if the organization is to increase their output and this can only be easily possible through mass awareness. With increased awareness, the operation of these organizations can be increased. The other main challenge of cross-cultural communication that foreign NGOs can face in lands that are not of their origin can be handled by these companies incorporating locals in their management and workforce as employees, consultants, and operators (Teegen, 2003).

In summary, I recommend that governments for countries in which these NGOs operate avail licenses for these NGOs after proper identification that the companies are not fraudsters since this acceptance for them to operate in the countries will be of great benefit to the entire citizenry. One easier way to appreciate the importance of these foreign companies is the creation of employment opportunities for the locals since the NGOs will not come with workers from the countries of their origin (Witt, 2006). These governments as an encouragement to allow the entry of these NGOs in their country should also reduce the revenues levied against foreign NGOs (Montana & Charnov, 2008).

Montana, P., & Charnov, B. (2008). Management and Communication (4th ed.). New York. Barron’s Educational Series Inc.

Schramm, W. (1954). How Communication Works . Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press.

Teegen, H. (2003). International NGOs as Global Institutions: Using Social Capital to Impact Multinational Enterprises and Governments. Journal of International Management , 4 (6), 122-134.

Witt, S. (2006). Changing Roles of NGOs in the Creation, Storage, and Dissemination of Information in Developing Countries . Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press.

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• How Do NGOs Deal with Other Public Actors such as Government and CBOs?
• Art, Literature, and Culture: Heritage of the XX Century
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• Chicago (A-D)
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Essay on Cross-Cultural Communication

Respectful communication has been highlighted as a vital component of cross-cultural communication capacity. Communicating in a culturally appropriate way includes adopting a technique of interaction that is both effective and respectful of and tolerant of cultural variations. Cultural influences significantly impact respect, and it is transferred in various ways between communities. Often, it is not a single episode of disrespectful dialogue that ends a connection but rather a collection of disrespectful dialogic components in cultural norms (Mackenzie & Wallace, 2011). Numerous studies have been conducted on the variations in respectful communication between cultures, but further study is required to define and comprehend respect completely. This article aims to provide a compelling case for the continuing research of respect communication and propose a framework for classifying the culture-specific features of respectful interactions. Respect acts as a lubricant, allowing communication to flow smoothly from one person to the next. Respect has been identified as a critical component of communication skills in research initiatives.

Respect is not something individuals measure but is transmitted by other group members. When another individual respects you, your incentive to reciprocate the excellent relationship information may improve by working in the group’s best interests. A solution to the intellectual difficulty of comprehending, cataloging, and quantifying respect in context is required. Since respect is a social and psychological construct, it can only be defined and comprehended via human contact. As a result, interest in the study of respect is growing in the humanities and social sciences and communication-related professional areas.

Respectful communication is a multifaceted idea that extends beyond basic politeness and courtesies. It was characterized as a statement of concern for a single person exhibited via listening, acknowledgment of contribution value, understanding of social context, empathetic expression, and information provision (Mackenzie & Wallace, 2011). Respect is defined as a blend of deference and civility. Respectful communication happens via various communication activities, including word choice, paralanguage, and kinesics. The research states that the word “respect” is mysterious and signifies something different to various individuals.

The necessity for a culture-general component-based formula definition comes during the hunt for an operationalization that is acceptable for early engagement. Due to the definition’s complexity and conceptualization of respect, any effort to research it will need a participant-derived definition derived from the contextual context under investigation. Assigning good and negative valence to activities is a context-dependent cultural process. Respect messages are sometimes complex or confusing to convey. In this case, it is made much more challenging by the cultural diversity in how respect is perceived.

Each culture has its definition of courteous communication. Smiling may be seen as a sign of weakness in Korean culture, while, in the United States, smiling is connected with friendliness (Mackenzie & Wallace, 2011). Because neither culture group knows the values of the other, respect was not appropriately transmitted – and the lack of respect was viewed as threatening. Additionally, a lack of knowledge/awareness of how morals and respect are transmitted resulted in several people being robbed at gunpoint and boycotted establishments. Respectful communication is a critical component of successful communication on both an interpersonal and professional level.

Patients’ satisfaction with their provider’s treatment was influenced by interaction. The authors provide a framework for identifying the critical components of respectful communication to guide future research. Respect was defined and distinguished from tolerance, acceptance, and acceptance in research that went beyond simple definitions and asked patients to characterize particular medical acts that they saw as disrespectful or respectful. This proposed framework provides a framework for studying interpersonal communication and culturally acceptable gestures of respect. According to a cross-cultural study, respect is a crucial component of communication skills in Malaysia and other regions of the globe.

When respect is effectively transmitted, there is a strong probability that no adverse effects will arise. Respectful communication results in the feeling of a good connection and may even have a “social healing impact” on previously troubled relationships’ psychological views. The Harvard Business School, according to the study, recently released a paper extolling the virtues of respect as a necessary component of successful international business practice. Respect was highlighted as critical for managing superior-subordinate relationships in multicultural companies and promoting communication in virtual intercultural teams. Respect for teachers has been connected to student treatment of instructors and successful assessment, and research has been conducted in preparation for cross-cultural contact.

Theoretically, effective communication is a straightforward process. Someone delivers a message, which another person receives, comprehends, and maybe responds accordingly. However, communication is not always straightforward or practical. The article provides a compelling argument for the necessity to build research committed to understanding respectful communication from a culture-wide viewpoint to allow more successful first cross-cultural interactions. It also included a complete literature assessment on respect scholarship and a framework for classifying the elements of respect communication that cross-cultural communication researchers might employ in a future study. Following a study of current frameworks and categorizing the many concepts connected with respect, a new framework was proposed that included four culturally uniform “constellations” of communicative conduct: verbal and nonverbal interaction, paralanguage, and interaction management (Mackenzie & Wallace, 2011). This article gives cross-cultural communication academics further insight into respect, a crucial aspect of cross-cultural interaction competency. It is done by compiling a complete selection of literature from several disciplines dedicated to both the communication of respect and the conception and operationalization of the word. It also acts as a call to connection for future study, especially in communication, focused on understanding how respect is communicated across cultures in emergent interaction scenarios.

According to the research, cross-cultural communication is a field that comprises attempting to comprehend how individuals from various cultural backgrounds interact. In today’s globalized society, communication increasingly includes interactions with individuals from many cultural backgrounds. As businesses increasingly engage across borders, it’s more important than ever to have a clear grasp of cultural differences. Since communication entails respect, it has become a crucial component in allowing individuals to execute their operations effectively. Respectful communication may take the form of both verbal and nonverbal interaction. Respect is a fundamental element to cross-cultural communications, as shown in communication competence (Mackenzie & Wallace, 2011). It has more to do with civility, efficiency, and ability. To signify respect in cross-cultural interaction, one must be tolerant, courteous, helpful, and appreciative.

The article’s application of cross-cultural communication theory involves the concept of communication between culturally diverse persons. These distinctions include age, race, socioeconomic standing, ethnic origin, and gender. The idea examines how people with competing characteristics interact and how their culture influences that relationship. The use of body language, gestures, and words all contribute to establishing a common ground between two or more persons. Finding a balance and a solution to cultural differences enables polite communication, which can only aid in constructive debate. The example of smiling, which is a sign of weakness in Korean culture but is associated with friendliness in the United States, demonstrates a lack of common ground across cultural diversity. As a result, respectful communication may be a multifaceted term that extends beyond mere politeness and courtesies. It is vital to emphasize common ground and dimensions in cross-cultural communication to comprehend better and increase first interactions’ ability to combat possible negative preconceptions.

Mackenzie, L., & Wallace, M. (2011). The communication of respect as a significant dimension of cross-cultural communication competence.  Cross-Cultural Communication ,  7 (3), 10-18.

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Business Insights

Importance of cross-cultural communication: why it matters, may 16, 2024.

The ability to communicate effectively with diverse cultures has become of paramount importance. You cannot conduct productive or profitable business without understanding your collaborator’s culture.

These same technologies enable businesses to employ talent from anywhere in the world and to integrate them into effective and productive teams. Fostering an understanding of cultural differences and understanding the importance of cross-cultural communication is vital for the productive functioning of these teams.

Understanding a global culture

The challenges and benefits of working in this global culture and the effects of a business’ worldview all prove the importance of cross-cultural communication.

Cross-cultural communication refers to the communication between participants from different cultures. Even within the same country, different locations can have cultural differences. Communication styles, standard norms of turn-taking in conversation, and accepted methods of address may all differ. 

So, before getting into the workplace and the effects of cross-cultural communication, it’s necessary to understand  cross-cultural communication and inclusion while  keeping several things in mind. 

Each of us needs to develop our knowledge and understanding of our own cultural background and biases . Without this understanding, we take many things for granted. This will undoubtedly lead to misunderstandings and misinterpretations. We also need to cultivate open-mindedness of other cultures and ways of doing things. Keeping these points in mind, let’s proceed.

8 aspects that prove the importance of cross cultural communication

For businesses to thrive in the global economy, it’s becoming increasingly vital to be aware of the importance of cross-cultural communication. Those businesses that successfully navigate and harness the differences and similarities between cultures can create more resilient interconnection and interdependence. 

Accordingly, the importance of cross-cultural communication in business plays its role in increasing productivity which helps businesses to thrive and increase their profits . So, let’s go through some of the greatest benefits of improved cross-cultural communication in the workplace and see how they drive success.

Communication and trust

Good cross-cultural understanding improves communication between people from different cultures. Consequently, it fosters greater trust.

When employees or customers are aware of potential differences and similarities, they’re likely to pay closer attention. They’ll think more about what other people are saying and doing. This is important to minimize misunderstandings and to consider what the other side is actually trying to communicate.

When employees or customers demonstrate an understanding of each other’s cultural background, greater trust is built. This creates a feeling of being a team and it enhances collaboration.

Increasing productivity and profits

Improved communication and trust promote greater productivity of all. The improved communication between colleagues boosts productivity in numerous ways, including reducing misinterpretation and a better understanding of strategies and goals .

With greater trust, participants can focus more on their aspect of the common work. All without the worry of whether the other participants are fulfilling the requirements of their respective tasks. Furthermore, greater trust also promotes collaboration and a sense of unity amongst team members.

Another reason why cross-cultural communication is important is that it impacts the understanding of the different incentive drives of participants. By applying good cross-cultural understanding, we cater to these various incentives and create an inclusive environment. Consequently, there is an improvement in productivity when the participants are appropriately incentivized.

Appropriate incentives make employees or customers feel more valued because they recognize that attention has been paid to their relevant cultural norms.

With a larger pool of cultural influences and views, creativity is improved as well.

Because of the greater variety in cultural influences and views, there are more inputs to any creative endeavor. This cultural diversity is important because it provides a larger selection of possible solutions to any problem or challenge faced in the workplace. 

Also, a better cross-cultural understanding is important to develop open-mindedness. It promotes the understanding that there’s more than one solution that’s suitable for any given situation or challenge.

In today’s rapidly changing markets and fast-paced lifestyles , improved creativity and problem-solving can provide a business with a noticeable edge.

Human resources

The importance of cross-cultural communication and understanding has its part in a business’s human resources department as well. When they have the ability to recruit globally and successfully integrate international talent, a business can make use of the most talented people , irrespective of their location. 

Not only would such diversity improve productivity, but it would also have a positive impact on the company’s image. It demonstrates that they value ability and talent wherever it comes from.

Challenging the status quo

Cultural diversity means that more questions are asked between participants as they seek to ensure effective communication and understanding. This results in the challenging of the status quo which often leads to potential improvements that would have been missed in a monocultural environment.

Moreover, frequent improvements often mean more efficient workflows, which can also drive greater success within the workplace.

Local needs

In utilizing cross-cultural communication and the application of a diverse talent pool, businesses can adapt to regional requirements with greater finesse and understanding. By making use of the relevant knowledge from within their global workforce, they’re better equipped to adapt to and understand local needs, habits, and requirements.

Demonstrating such local understanding could be a primary determiner of success in a local market . By catering to local culture, your business is almost certain to have a competitive edge over any rivals.

A great growth opportunity

While there are numerous challenges that occur when different cultures interact , there is a great opportunity too.

Ideally, the development and implementation of cross-cultural communication should take place from the top of the organization. When the leaders set an example and demonstrate their awareness and adaptability, they pave the way for everyone else in the organization to follow suit.

The benefits of effective cross-cultural communication, not only toward success and profit, can be immense. It generally outweighs the challenges posed and has major long-term benefits.

To start the development of cross-cultural communication, keep the above in mind. Remember to actively listen to all participants. And, always pause before reacting, in case there has been a cultural misunderstanding.

Society’s integration with technology and the resulting development of global culture has placed greater pressures on business. It highlighted the need for developing and training cultural understanding and the importance of cross-cultural communication. Therefore, breaking the cross-cultural communication barriers in the workplace goes a long way towards increasing success. 

More must-read stories from Enterprise League:

• The golden rules you need to build a steady buyer-seller relationship .
• Things to consider before deciding on a business location .
• Crucial leadership traits to adopt if you want to succeed as a leader.
• Find out which are the best SEO tools for small businesses that guarantee business growth.
• Creative and profitable outdoor business ideas you should be aware of.

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Language Learning: Why Is Intercultural Communication Important?

March 24, 2023

Thanks to fast transportation, global media, and the world wide web, we are now more connected than ever to other people worldwide. 

Working with the international community for economic survival means countries and cultures can no longer operate in a vacuum. Because of this, intercultural communication is no longer a choice but a must .

In addition, misunderstandings resulting from a lack of familiarity with another culture are often embarrassing. Blunders like these can make it difficult, if not impossible, to reach an agreement with another country or close a business contract with a foreign partner. For travelers, a faux pas can also make interactions more awkward. In this article, we’ll be discussing the importance of intercultural communication.

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Intercultural Communication Definition

The capacity to communicate with people from diverse cultures is referred to as intercultural communication. Interacting effectively across cultural lines requires perseverance and sensitivity to one another’s differences. This encompasses language skills, customs, ways of thinking, social norms, and habits.

There are many ways in which people all around the world are similar, yet it is our differences that truly define us. To put it simply, communication is the exchange of ideas and information between individuals by any means, verbal or otherwise. Sharing knowledge with others requires familiarity with social norms, body language, and etiquette.

Having the ability to communicate effectively across cultural boundaries is critical for the success of any intercultural or multinational endeavor. Additionally, it helps improve relationships by facilitating two-way conversations, which in turn foster mutual understanding between people of diverse backgrounds.

Intercultural Communication Examples

There are several facets to intercultural communication competence, from language skills to knowledge of social practices and cultural norms. These capabilities are constantly used throughout organizations and in all forms of communication. Here are a few examples of intercultural communication in action:

It can be challenging for multinational corporations to find appropriate product names that will not offend customers in their target markets due to linguistic differences. For instance, Coca-Cola initially considered renaming its brand KeKou-KeLa for the Chinese market. However, they didn’t take into account that this cute moniker means “female horse stuffed with wax” or “bite the wax tadpole.” Unsurprisingly, a rebrand was necessary. Coke then looked up 40,000 Chinese characters to get a phonetic equivalent and came up with “ko-kou-ko-le,” which roughly translates to “happiness in the mouth.”

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Business Relationships

Respecting the social norms of another culture requires an understanding that practices may vary. While Americans value making small talk with potential business partners, the British may try humor, while the Germans may jump right to the point.

In contrast, people from Thailand don’t bat an eye when asked what may be seen as intrusive questions in the West, such as whether you’re married or what you do for a living. Similarly, Americans prefer first names, but in Austria, titles are used to prevent coming off as disrespectful.

Advertising

You may have heard the popular myth that the Chevrolet Nova of the 1970s was a resounding flop in Latin America due to its name, since “no va” translates to “no go” in Spanish . The car was a smashing success since the name “nova” also means “new.” Nevertheless, there are innumerable examples of poorly translated advertisements across cultures that led to more severe outcomes.

For example, the Spanish equivalent of the American “Got Milk?” campaign featured the phrase “Tienes leche?” which translates as “Are you lactating?” The campaign completely bombed, ruining the brand’s reputation in that area. This mishap could have been avoided with more thorough focus group testing of intercultural communication.

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Public Relations and Media Events

Executives from the United States frequently interview international media and publicly appear in other countries. Working knowledge of the language is obviously necessary for such work, but words alone can’t account for how people will interpret things like tone of voice, the pace of speech, gestures, and facial expressions. In Japan, for instance, it’s rude to point out. Instead, you should wave politely in that direction. Similarly, the Indian equivalents of “please” and “thank you” are sometimes seen as overly formal and even disrespectful.

The Importance of Intercultural Communication

When we investigate the cultural influences on communication, we gain a deeper understanding of both areas. Additionally, it aids in expanding our knowledge of who we are as individuals and as a society.

Understanding our communication styles, habits, and tendencies and how they may serve or work against us when interacting with others from other cultural backgrounds is a valuable personal benefit of studying intercultural communication.

When seen in a broader context, intercultural communication can shed light on a wide range of human experiences, from the process of defining the workings of the brain to the power of languages in bringing people together.

As the world gets more interconnected, the ability to communicate successfully across cultural boundaries is becoming more and more vital. Since we are now able to travel to more places, we are exposed to other cultures and ways of living.

The ability to communicate effectively across cultural boundaries is crucial for the successful collaboration and relationship-building of multiethnic and international communities. It is also essential for avoiding and resolving conflicts. If you want to learn about other people and their customs and find common ground around the world, this is how to do it.

Intercultural Communication Competence

There are a variety of skills that are necessary for effective intercultural communication; some of them may be taught, while others are inherent and just require practice. Let’s take a look at some of the most crucial personal competencies for intercultural communication, as opposed to just linguistic ones like speaking, listening, and body language.

• Self-awareness: Recognizing how your personal views, behaviors, and possible prejudices and stereotypes might affect a conversation is a massive step in improving your ability to have meaningful interactions with others.
• Empathy: Intercultural communication relies heavily on empathizing with others and gaining insight into their experiences.
• Respect: Even if you don’t agree with or appreciate every aspect of another person’s or group’s culture, you may still respect them by recognizing their right to do so.
• Emotional intelligence: Learning to pick up on the subtleties of communication is essential when working with people from other cultures. Whether you get what is being communicated or not depends on how well you use your senses, how well you know yourself, and how well you can empathize with others.
• Adaptability: One of the goals of intercultural communication is to teach people how to modify their way of speaking to replace ambiguity, conflict, and antagonism with clarity, harmony, and cooperation. That’s why it’s important to be adaptable in our thinking, reactions, and interactions with others, as well as in our speech, listening, and body language.
• Patience: Effective communication across cultural boundaries doesn’t happen immediately. That’s why you need to have patience. Don’t rush through the process of becoming well-versed in best practices; instead, take your time and make them part of your routine. Due to cultural differences, it may take more or less time than usual to absorb new information.
• Positivity: Maintaining an optimistic attitude when interacting with people of other cultures is crucial. Misunderstandings occur all the time, and in most cases, it’s not because someone was trying to be deliberately unclear. Those of us who aren’t well-versed in other cultures often fail to grasp the intended meaning of a message. This is why it’s essential to look at every intercultural exchange in a constructive light.

Improving Your Intercultural Communication Skills

Here are some steps you can take to begin improving your intercultural communication skills:

Acquire Cultural Knowledge

Discovering the world through the lens of other people’s beliefs, values, and ways of expression is a fascinating and eye-opening experience. Educating yourself on the fundamentals of intercultural communication, such as language and gestures, is just as important as expanding your knowledge of the world’s diverse cultures.

Watch International Shows

To truly immerse oneself in the nuances of a different culture, indulging in international films in their original language proves far more rewarding than enduring subpar English dubs. It’s akin to embarking on a sensory journey, where the cadence of speech, the inflections, and the expressions hold the essence of the culture itself. Delving into Indian, Turkish, or Chinese cinema unveils a tapestry of traditions, values, and societal dynamics that might otherwise remain obscured in translation.

Enhancing this experience can be as simple as grabbing a beverage from the drinks fridge , settling comfortably, and letting the cinematic journey unfold. Modern streaming platforms offer a treasure trove of international TV shows and films, granting viewers a window into distant cultures from the comfort of their homes.

Speak to People

When you have coworkers or neighbors from other countries, you gain access to a wealth of undiscovered possibilities. In-depth conversations with people about their backgrounds and the culture shock they may have felt upon arriving in your country can yield a great deal of valuable knowledge and perspective. If they are treated with respect and dignity, people all around the world are happy to have their voices heard.

Take in What You Hear and See

There are a wide variety of ways to enhance your intercultural communication competence. Among these are learning when to ask open-ended questions, stick to yes/no answers, and decide when to use humor. The two most crucial pieces of advice for improving your communication skills are to listen attentively and to watch what others do.

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Final Thoughts

Whether you’re a tourist taking a trip overseas, a businessperson negotiating a merger, or a professor teaching a classroom full of international students, you need to be aware of the importance of effective intercultural communication.

In today’s interconnected world, the ability to communicate across cultural boundaries is more important than ever. It facilitates communication across linguistic and cultural boundaries, leading to more tolerance, acceptance, and, ultimately, stronger relationships amongst people of diverse backgrounds.

Enrolling in a language program is an excellent first step if you’re interested in learning more about intercultural communication and identifying and overcoming your own cultural biases. You can improve your language skills and your ability to communicate across cultures by enrolling in one of the Middlebury Language Schools’ immersion programs . Teaching both beginners and more advanced students, our immersion and graduate programs cover a wide range of languages.

When you need help learning a new language, Middlebury Language Schools is here to guide you. Contact us today !

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Beyond Intractability

The Hyper-Polarization Challenge to the Conflict Resolution Field We invite you to participate in an online exploration of what those with conflict and peacebuilding expertise can do to help defend liberal democracies and encourage them live up to their ideals.

Follow BI and the Hyper-Polarization Discussion on BI's New Substack Newsletter .

Hyper-Polarization, COVID, Racism, and the Constructive Conflict Initiative Read about (and contribute to) the  Constructive Conflict Initiative  and its associated Blog —our effort to assemble what we collectively know about how to move beyond our hyperpolarized politics and start solving society's problems. 

By Michelle LeBaron

July 2003  

All communication is cultural -- it draws on ways we have learned to speak and give nonverbal messages. We do not always communicate the same way from day to day, since factors like context, individual personality, and mood interact with the variety of cultural influences we have internalized that influence our choices. Communication is interactive, so an important influence on its effectiveness is our relationship with others. Do they hear and understand what we are trying to say? Are they listening well? Are we listening well in response? Do their responses show that they understand the words and the meanings behind the words we have chosen? Is the mood positive and receptive? Is there trust between them and us? Are there differences that relate to ineffective communication, divergent goals or interests, or fundamentally different ways of seeing the world? The answers to these questions will give us some clues about the effectiveness of our communication and the ease with which we may be able to move through conflict.

The challenge is that even with all the good will in the world, miscommunication is likely to happen, especially when there are significant cultural differences between communicators. Miscommunication may lead to conflict, or aggravate conflict that already exists. We make -- whether it is clear to us or not -- quite different meaning of the world, our places in it, and our relationships with others. In this module, cross-cultural communication will be outlined and demonstrated by examples of ideas, attitudes, and behaviors involving four variables:

• Time and Space

Fate and Personal Responsibility

Face and face-saving, nonverbal communication.

As our familiarity with these different starting points increases, we are cultivating cultural fluency -- awareness of the ways cultures operate in communication and conflict, and the ability to respond effectively to these differences.

Time and Space[1]

Time is one of the most central differences that separate cultures and cultural ways of doing things. In the West, time tends to be seen as quantitative, measured in units that reflect the march of progress. It is logical, sequential, and present-focused, moving with incremental certainty toward a future the ego cannot touch and a past that is not a part of now. Novinger calls the United States a "chronocracy," in which there is such reverence for efficiency and the success of economic endeavors that the expression "time is money" is frequently heard.[2] This approach to time is called monochronic -- it is an approach that favors linear structure and focus on one event or interaction at a time. Robert's Rules of Order, observed in many Western meetings, enforce a monochronic idea of time.

In the East, time feels like it has unlimited continuity, an unraveling rather than a strict boundary. Birth and death are not such absolute ends since the universe continues and humans, though changing form, continue as part of it. People may attend to many things happening at once in this approach to time, called polychronous. This may mean many conversations in a moment (such as a meeting in which people speak simultaneously, "talking over" each other as they discuss their subjects), or many times and peoples during one process (such as a ceremony in which those family members who have died are felt to be present as well as those yet to be born into the family).

A good place to look to understand the Eastern idea of time is India. There, time is seen as moving endlessly through various cycles, becoming and vanishing. Time stretches far beyond the human ego or lifetime. There is a certain timeless quality to time, an aesthetic almost too intricate and vast for the human mind to comprehend. Consider this description of an aeon, the unit of time which elapses between the origin and destruction of a world system: "Suppose there is a mountain, of very hard rock, much bigger than the Himalayas; and suppose that a man, with a piece of the very finest cloth of Benares, once every century should touch that mountain ever so slightly -- then the time it would take him to wear away the entire mountain would be about the time of an Aeon."[3]

Differences over time can play out in painful and dramatic ways in negotiation or conflict-resolution processes. An example of differences over time comes from a negotiation process related to a land claim that took place in Canada. First Nations people met with representatives from local, regional, and national governments to introduce themselves and begin their work. During this first meeting, First Nations people took time to tell the stories of their people and their relationships to the land over the past seven generations. They spoke of the spirit of the land, the kinds of things their people have traditionally done on the land, and their sacred connection to it. They spoke in circular ways, weaving themes, feelings, ideas, and experiences together as they remembered seven generations into the past and projected seven generations forward.

When it was the government representatives' chance to speak, they projected flow charts showing internal processes for decision-making and spoke in present-focused ways about their intentions for entering the negotiation process. The flow charts were linear and spare in their lack of narrative, arising from the bureaucratic culture from which the government representatives came. Two different conceptions of time: in one, time stretches, loops forward and back, past and future are both present in this time. In the other, time begins with the present moment and extends into the horizon in which the matters at hand will be decided.

Neither side felt satisfied with this first meeting. No one addressed the differences in how time was seen and held directly, but everyone was aware that they were not "on the same page." Each side felt some frustration with the other. Their notions of time were embedded in their understandings of the world, and these understandings informed their common sense about how to proceed in negotiations. Because neither side was completely aware of these different notions of time, it was difficult for the negotiations to proceed, and difficult for each side to trust the other. Their different ideas of time made communication challenging.

This meeting took place in the early 1990s. Of course, in this modern age of high-speed communication, no group is completely disconnected from another. Each group -- government and First Nations representatives -- has had some exposure to the other's ideas of time, space, and ideas about appropriate approaches to negotiation. Each has found ways to adapt. How this adaptation takes place, and whether it takes place without one side feeling they are forced to give in to the other, has a significant impact on the course of the negotiations.

It is also true that cultural approaches to time or communication are not always applied in good faith, but may serve a variety of motives. Asserting power, superiority, advantage, or control over the course of the negotiations may be a motive wrapped up in certain cultural behaviors (for example, the government representatives' detailed emphasis on ratification procedures may have conveyed an implicit message of control, or the First Nations' attention to the past may have emphasized the advantages of being aware of history). Culture and cultural beliefs may be used as a tactic by negotiators; for this reason, it is important that parties be involved in collaborative-process design when addressing intractable conflicts. As people from different cultural backgrounds work together to design a process to address the issues that divide them, they can ask questions about cultural preferences about time and space and how these may affect a negotiation or conflict-resolution process, and thus inoculate against the use of culture as a tactic or an instrument to advance power.

Any one example will show us only a glimpse of approaches to time as a confounding variable across cultures. In fact, ideas of time have a great deal of complexity buried within them. Western concepts of time as a straight line emanating from no one in particular obscure the idea that there are purposive forces at work in time, a common idea in indigenous and Eastern ways of thought. From an Eastern or indigenous perspective, Spirit operates within space and time, so time is alive with purpose and specific meanings may be discerned from events. A party to a negotiation who subscribes to this idea of time may also have ideas about fate, destiny, and the importance of uncovering "right relationship" and "right action." If time is a circle, an unraveling ball of twine, a spiral, an unfolding of stories already written, or a play in which much of the set is invisible, then relationships and meanings can be uncovered to inform current actions. Time, in this polychronic perspective, is connected to other peoples as well as periods of history.

This is why a polychronic perspective is often associated with a communitarian starting point. The focus on the collective, or group, stretching forward and back, animates the polychronic view of time. In more monochronic settings, an individualist way of life is more easily accommodated. Individualists can more easily extract moments in time, and individuals themselves, from the networks around them. If time is a straight line stretching forward and not back, then fate or destiny may be less compelling. (For more on this, see the essay on Communication Tools for Understanding Cultural Difference .)

Another important variable affecting communication across cultures is fate and personal responsibility. This refers to the degree to which we feel ourselves the masters of our lives, versus the degree to which we see ourselves as subject to things outside our control. Another way to look at this is to ask how much we see ourselves able to change and maneuver, to choose the course of our lives and relationships. Some have drawn a parallel between the emphasis on personal responsibility in North American settings and the landscape itself.[4] The North American landscape is vast, with large spaces of unpopulated territory. The frontier mentality of "conquering" the wilderness, and the expansiveness of the land stretching huge distances, may relate to generally high levels of confidence in the ability to shape and choose our destinies.

In this expansive landscape, many children grow up with an epic sense of life, where ideas are big, and hope springs eternal. When they experience setbacks, they are encouraged to redouble their efforts, to "try, try again." Action, efficacy, and achievement are emphasized and expected. Free will is enshrined in laws and enforced by courts.

Now consider places in the world with much smaller territory, whose history reflects repeated conquest and harsh struggles: Northern Ireland, Mexico, Israel, Palestine. In these places, there is more emphasis on destiny's role in human life. In Mexico, there is a legacy of poverty, invasion, and territorial mutilation. Mexicans are more likely to see struggles as inevitable or unavoidable. Their fatalistic attitude is expressed in their way of responding to failure or accident by saying "ni modo" ("no way" or "tough luck"), meaning that the setback was destined.

This variable is important to understanding cultural conflict. If someone invested in free will crosses paths with someone more fatalistic in orientation, miscommunication is likely. The first person may expect action and accountability. Failing to see it, they may conclude that the second is lazy, obstructionist, or dishonest. The second person will expect respect for the natural order of things. Failing to see it, they may conclude that the first is coercive or irreverent, inflated in his ideas of what can be accomplished or changed.

Another important cultural variable relates to face and face-saving . Face is important across cultures, yet the dynamics of face and face-saving play out differently. Face is defined in many different ways in the cross-cultural communication literature. Novinger says it is "the value or standing a person has in the eyes of others...and that it relate[s] to pride or self-respect."[5] Others have defined it as "the negotiated public image, mutually granted each other by participants in [communication]."[6] In this broader definition, face includes ideas of status, power, courtesy, insider and outsider relations, humor, and respect. In many cultures, maintaining face is of great importance, though ideas of how to do this vary.

The starting points of individualism and communitarianism are closely related to face. If I see myself as a self-determining individual, then face has to do with preserving my image with others and myself. I can and should exert control in situations to achieve this goal. I may do this by taking a competitive stance in negotiations or confronting someone who I perceive to have wronged me. I may be comfortable in a mediation where the other party and I meet face to face and frankly discuss our differences.

If I see my primary identification as a group member, then considerations about face involve my group. Direct confrontation or problem-solving with others may reflect poorly on my group, or disturb overall community harmony. I may prefer to avoid criticism of others, even when the disappointment I have concealed may come out in other, more damaging ways later. When there is conflict that cannot be avoided, I may prefer a third party who acts as a shuttle between me and the other people involved in the conflict. Since no direct confrontation takes place, face is preserved and potential damage to the relationships or networks of relationships is minimized.

Nonverbal communication is hugely important in any interaction with others; its importance is multiplied across cultures. This is because we tend to look for nonverbal cues when verbal messages are unclear or ambiguous, as they are more likely to be across cultures (especially when different languages are being used). Since nonverbal behavior arises from our cultural common sense -- our ideas about what is appropriate, normal, and effective as communication in relationships -- we use different systems of understanding gestures, posture, silence, spacial relations, emotional expression, touch, physical appearance, and other nonverbal cues. Cultures also attribute different degrees of importance to verbal and nonverbal behavior.

Low-context cultures like the United States and Canada tend to give relatively less emphasis to nonverbal communication. This does not mean that nonverbal communication does not happen, or that it is unimportant, but that people in these settings tend to place less importance on it than on the literal meanings of words themselves. In high-context settings such as Japan or Colombia, understanding the nonverbal components of communication is relatively more important to receiving the intended meaning of the communication as a whole.

Some elements of nonverbal communication are consistent across cultures. For example, research has shown that the emotions of enjoyment, anger, fear, sadness, disgust, and surprise are expressed in similar ways by people around the world.[7] Differences surface with respect to which emotions are acceptable to display in various cultural settings, and by whom. For instance, it may be more social acceptable in some settings in the United States for women to show fear, but not anger, and for men to display anger, but not fear.[8] At the same time, interpretation of facial expressions across cultures is difficult. In China and Japan, for example, a facial expression that would be recognized around the world as conveying happiness may actually express anger or mask sadness, both of which are unacceptable to show overtly.[9]

These differences of interpretation may lead to conflict, or escalate existing conflict. Suppose a Japanese person is explaining her absence from negotiations due to a death in her family. She may do so with a smile, based on her cultural belief that it is not appropriate to inflict the pain of grief on others. For a Westerner who understands smiles to mean friendliness and happiness, this smile may seem incongruous and even cold, under the circumstances. Even though some facial expressions may be similar across cultures, their interpretations remain culture-specific. It is important to understand something about cultural starting-points and values in order to interpret emotions expressed in cross-cultural interactions.

Another variable across cultures has to do with proxemics, or ways of relating to space. Crossing cultures, we encounter very different ideas about polite space for conversations and negotiations. North Americans tend to prefer a large amount of space, perhaps because they are surrounded by it in their homes and countryside. Europeans tend to stand more closely with each other when talking, and are accustomed to smaller personal spaces. In a comparison of North American and French children on a beach, a researcher noticed that the French children tended to stay in a relatively small space near their parents, while U.S. children ranged up and down a large area of the beach.[10]

The difficulty with space preferences is not that they exist, but the judgments that get attached to them. If someone is accustomed to standing or sitting very close when they are talking with another, they may see the other's attempt to create more space as evidence of coldness, condescension, or a lack of interest. Those who are accustomed to more personal space may view attempts to get closer as pushy, disrespectful, or aggressive. Neither is correct -- they are simply different.[11]

Also related to space is the degree of comfort we feel moving furniture or other objects. It is said that a German executive working in the United States became so upset with visitors to his office moving the guest chair to suit themselves that he had it bolted to the floor.[12] Contrast this with U.S. and Canadian mediators and conflict-resolution trainers, whose first step in preparing for a meeting is not infrequently a complete rearrangement of the furniture.

Finally, line-waiting behavior and behavior in group settings like grocery stores or government offices is culturally-influenced. Novinger reports that the English and U.S. Americans are serious about standing in lines, in accordance with their beliefs in democracy and the principle of "first come, first served."[13] The French, on the other hand, have a practice of resquillage , or line jumping, that irritates many British and U.S. Americans. In another example, immigrants from Armenia report that it is difficult to adjust to a system of waiting in line, when their home context permitted one member of a family to save spots for several others.

These examples of differences related to nonverbal communication are only the tip of the iceberg. Careful observation, ongoing study from a variety of sources, and cultivating relationships across cultures will all help develop the cultural fluency to work effectively with nonverbal communication differences.

Each of the variables discussed in this module -- time and space, personal responsibility and fate, face and face-saving, and nonverbal communication -- are much more complex than it is possible to convey. Each of them influences the course of communications, and can be responsible for conflict or the escalation of conflict when it leads to miscommunication or misinterpretation. A culturally-fluent approach to conflict means working over time to understand these and other ways communication varies across cultures, and applying these understandings in order to enhance relationships across differences.

[1] Many of these ideas are discussed in more detail in LeBaron, Michelle. Bridging Cultural Conflicts. A New Approach for a Changing World. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2003.

[2] Novinger, Tracy. Intercultural Communication . Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2001, P. 84.

[3] Conze, Edward. Buddhism: Its Essence and Development . New York: HarperCollins, 1951, p. 49.

[4] For more about correspondences between landscape and national psyches, see: Novinger, Tracy. Intercultural Communication . Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2001.

[5] Novinger, p. 31

[6] Okun, Barbara F., Fried, Jane, Okun, Marcia L. Understanding Diversity. A Learning as Practice Primer . Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing, 1999, pp. 59-60.

[7] Ibid., p. 78.

[9] Novinger, p. 65.

[10] Ibid., p. 67.

[11] Ibid., pp. 68-69.

[12] Ibid., p. 68.

Use the following to cite this article: LeBaron, Michelle. "Cross-Cultural Communication." Beyond Intractability . Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Information Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: July 2003 < http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/cross-cultural-communication >.

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Home > Books > Globalization - Education and Management Agendas

The Impact of Globalization on Cross-Cultural Communication

Submitted: 21 December 2011 Published: 17 August 2012

DOI: 10.5772/45816

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Globalization - Education and Management Agendas

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Author Information

Lowell c. matthews.

• Southern New Hampshire University, Manchester, NH, USA

Bharat S. Thakkar

• PREMGroup, Inc. and Faculty, College of Business, Walden University, USA

*Address all correspondence to:

1. Introduction

In a global environment the ability to communicate effectively can be a challenge. Even when both parties speak the same language there can still be misunderstandings due to ethic and cultural differences. Over the last decade, there have been countless examples from the business sector that demonstrate how poor communication can lead to poor organizational performance. Understanding the impact of globalization on cross-culture communication is imperative for organizations seeking to create a competitive advantage in the global market. Recent economic challenges further highlight the need for organizations to develop the internal communication capacity necessary to control and monitor external threats. As society becomes more globally connected the ability to communicate across cultural boundaries has gained increasing prominence. Global businesses must understand how to communicate with employees and customers from different cultures in order to fulfill the organization’s mission and build value for stakeholders. The use of technology has had a profound impact on how businesses communicate globally and market their products and services. However, with the advancements in technology organizations must still be cognoscente of the culture nuisances that can potentially present obstacles in trying to increase profits and market share. According to Genevieve Hilton, “cultural proficiency doesn't mean memorizing every cultural nuance of every market. It's knowing when to listen, when to ask for help, and when—finally—to speak” [ 1 ].

For companies involved in global business operations the relationship of managers and subordinates in multinational firms is important. In research conducted by Thomas and Ravlin [ 2 ] it was found that participants to whom nationality was more important indicated lower perceptions of similarity with the manager, lower intentions to associate, and lower perceptions of managerial effectiveness. The results of the study strongly indicate that teaching members of different cultures to behave like each other is an ineffective approach to improving intercultural interactions in business settings [ 2 ]. Focus should be placed on using individual differences to create innovation. Training and development of individuals involved in intercultural interactions should involve more than simply promoting cultural adaptation

Communication is vital for businesses to effectively explain how their products and services differ from their competitors. Companies that are successfully able to communicate cross-culturally have a competitive advantage because they can devote more time and resources to conducting business and less time on internal and external communication issues [ 1 ]. Communication is necessary for individuals to express themselves and to fulfill basic needs. The same holds true for businesses, governments, and countries. Without the ability to communicate and understand each other, there would be chaos.Communication that is based on cultural understanding is more apt to prevent misunderstandings caused by personal biases and prejudices.

To illustrate the importance of communication on building relationships globally consider the example of the United States and South Korea. The relationship between these two countries is one built upon a rich history. In 1884, the United States government became the first foreign entity to purchase property in Korea [ 3 ]. Before this time no foreigner was permitted to live inside Seoul. Despite significant cultural differences, South Korea and the United States have been able to develop a communication process that other countries seek to replicate. The American Chamber of Commerce in Korea was established in 1953 with the chief purpose to promote the advancement of trade and commerce between Korea and the United States. Article II of the Chamber’s constitution outlines the following six objectives [ 4 ]:

To promote the development of commerce between the United States of America and Korea;

To promote measure calculated to benefit and protect the interests in Korea of member companies and citizens of the United States;

To represent, express, and give effect to the opinions of the Chamber business community of the United States regarding trade, commerce, finance, industry, and related questions;

To collect, evaluate, and disseminate among its members statistical and other information concerning commerce or other undertakings of interest to them;

To associate and cooperate with other organizations sharing mutual interests;

To do any and all other things incidental or related to the attainment of the above objectives.

When countries are able to exchange ideas and communicate in an open society everyone benefits. Kathleen Stephens, U.S. Ambassador to the Republic of Korea, summed it up by saying, “we must use our shared interests and values to compliment and transform each other’s growth” [ 5 ]. The main purpose of this study is to develop a cross-cultural communication model that can be applied by companies that communicate with employees from different cultures. The aim is to identify the steps that leaders of organizations competing in a global environment should consider when communicating to different cultures. This study uses a group a college students participating in the 2 nd Korea America Student Conference (KASC) as the main research source for creating the model. KASC is supported by the International Student Conferences, a non-profit organization located in Washington, D.C., which sponsors student-run educational and cultural exchange programs for university students from the United States, Japan, and Korea [ 6 ]. The researchers used a mix of qualitative and quantitative research methodologies to generate the model. A comparative literature review is conducted and organizational examples of Samsung and Hyundai are considered to demonstrate the impact of globalization on cross-culture communication practices. The study also highlights the action research methodology that was employed to design the cross-culture communication model. In conclusion, the 4 C’s Global Leadership Model is introduced to demonstrate how organizational leaders can create innovation in a global environment by managing conflict, communication, creativity, and connectivity.

2. Literature review

Research on cross-cultural communication often focuses on understanding how individual differences influence our ability to communicate with others. Since most individuals grow up within a single culture having to interact with others from a different culture or background can represent a challenge [ 7 ]. Exposure to different cultures affects our ability to communicate with others in a way that leads to positive outcomes. Fink, Neyer, and Kölling propose that researchers involved in cross-cultural studies should develop an understanding of the interrelations between cultural dimensions, cultural standards, and personality traits [ 7 ]. This increased awareness helps an individual to manage their own cross-cultural behavior as well as that of others.

Reza Najafbagy refers to co-orientation, the ability to familiarize all aspects of one’s own life in relation to someone of a different culture, as a primary component of intercultural communication [ 8 ]. Individuals that have experienced different cultures are more cognizant of how to alter their communication style so that others understand the information they are trying to transfer. Research conducted by Seak and Enderwick revealed the importance of providing cross-cultural communication and training skills for expatriates assigned to foreign locations in particularly, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan and South Korea [ 9 ]. Now more than ever global organizations must ensure that their employees have the skills required to communicate across cultural boundaries. Cross-cultural communication enhances innovation by allowing for collective problem solving and the open dissemination of information [ 10 ].

Cohen and Levinthal define the term absorptive capacity as an organization’s ability to identify and recognize the value of new external information, absorb it, and implement it into their business operations [ 11 ]. Organizations that understand the importance of external information are better able to use their core competencies to create a competitive advantage. Cross-culture communication enhances an organization’s absorptive capacity because it provides a new of perspective for satisfying the needs of stakeholders.Communication is the life-blood of organizations and must be allowed to flow throughout the entire organization. However, when information flows are random and there is no apparent directive of how to apply the outside knowledge the organization will not benefit [ 11 ]. Productivity decreases when organizational leaders are not able to communicate clear and concise expectations. Furthermore, conflict and tension arises when employees do not understand how their personal efforts contribute to the overall success of the organization.

Culture can affect how we perceive the actions of others. Ambassador Stephens gave the example of a “cheerleading group from North Korea that was participating in a sports competition in South Korea. When the group was heading to the venue one of the cheerleaders yelled for the bus stop. She then proceeds to get off the bus in the rain to get a poster of the North Korean leader that was getting wet. Why? Usually, 70% of Americans would say it was for show. 70% of Koreans would respond that the cheerleader really felt something” [ 5 ]. Our perception of others directly affects how we interpret their behavior and actions. Effective cross-culture communication requires that we base our perceptions on facts and not merely on personal biases and prejudices. The Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Project (GLOBE) examined cultural values of organizational practices and leadership. The study focuses on identifying cultural influences on leadership and management practices. Some scholars believe that as society becomes more interconnected cultural differences will converge [ 12 ]. Even though some convergence may occur over time, countries will still maintain distinct cultural differences that will transcend technology and external influences.

Successful business leaders must be able to balance organizational objectives with external global challenges. As organizations become more interconnected the role of leaders in managing global teams is becoming increasingly important. Being able to navigate through different cultural nuances is a key skill for global leaders. Rabotin defines cultural intelligence as “the ability to interact with others from diverse cultural backgrounds, being aware of our cultural values that drive our attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs” [ 13 ]. Regardless of their geographic location leaders must be able to communicate across borders in order to create a competitive advantage and achieve results. It is clearly apparent that physical boundaries are increasingly becoming transparent. A global leader must be aware of their personal cultural biases and be willing to change their opinions by learning from those that are different from them [ 13 ].

In research conducted by Choi and Chang it was noted that organizational culture directly impacts the attitudes and motivation of employees towards innovation [ 14 ]. The researchers identified three organizational factors of management support, resource availability, and support for learning as key enablers for innovation [ 14 ]. All three factors were found to be significantly correlated to implementation, however; only management support was determined to be a significant predictor of innovation [ 14 ]. This research supports the conclusion that when employees are fully engaged in the process of innovation success is more likely to be achieved. Organizations must have in place procedures that encourage innovation throughout the entire company. Every employee must feel vested in the company and continually seeking ways to improve processes.

3. Methodology

A qualitative and quantitative research strategy consisting of group observations, interviews, and surveys were used to gather information. These methods are most appropriate because of the complexity involved in studying culture and communication from an individual perspective. By using these methods the researchers were able to ascertain underlying factors that are relevant to understanding the affects of culture on communication when two different groups interact with each other.

Participants were undergraduate and graduate students from South Korea and the United States selected to participate in the 2 nd Korea America Student Conference (KASC). Selection to KASC is based on a competitive process. Participation in the study was completely voluntary and students were asked to complete a consent form. A total of 46 students attended KASC and 65% were female. 52% of the students resided in South Korea and 48% in the United States. Interestingly, 73% of all the students identified Korean as part of their ethnicity. 91% of the students were 19 to 23 years of age.

The researchers focused on collecting data from participants to assist in the development of a cross-cultural communication model. The researcher addressed the differences and similarities in communication strategies and the affect on building relationships. Previous research on culture has applied a field-based approach that allows for the exchange of information from multiple sources. The researchers followed a similar structure when participating in KASC over a two-week period.

The role of the researchers was that of consultants that sought to serve as a bridge between the participants and the administrators of the conference. It was important for the researcher to develop a level of trust with the participants quickly. To accomplish this, the researchers assisted staff with administrative tasks during the conference and shared in activities with the participants. The researchers used current programs established by KASC to expand opportunities to exchange information. For example, the researcher attended lectures, group discussions, and roundtable sessions.

The topics discussed during interviews included: a) reasons for participating in KASC, b) individual experiences and interactions with different cultures, c) reactions to changes that occurred during the conference, and d) discussion of how culture affects the communication between American and Korean students. During group observations the researchers focused on key words and phrases that were used by the students and categorized them according to relevant themes. Based on the words and phrases a concept map was created that helped to identify the predictors used in the study.

Five cultural measurements of acceptance, conflict, individualism, risk, and sharing were used to predict the country of residence. Table 1 defines the variables used in the study. The country of residence index was selected as the dependent variable because it is directly affected by culture.

Rigor and validity were addressed by continuously redefining the key issues identified by participants. Participant feedback was vital to this study and was used to form and shape the cross-cultural communication model. The survey that was developed for this study consisted of 23 items that were rated on five point Likert scale with 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree. Each of the items assessed one of the cultural measurements of acceptance, conflict, individualism, risk, or sharing.

Variables in Cross-Cultural Communication Study

A multiple regression analysis was conducted to evaluate how well the five independent variables for culture predict the country of residence. The linear combination of culture measures was significantly related to the country of residence index, F (5, 17) = 3.57, p <.01. The sample multiple correlation coefficient was.71, indicating that approximately 51% of the variance of the country of residence index in the sample can be accounted for by the linear combination of culture measures.

Model Summary

The partial regression plots for conflict and sharing exhibit the best correlations for predicting the country of residence index. Table 3 presents indices to indicate the relative strength of the individual predictors. As expected all of the bivariate correlations between the country of residence index were positive.

The Bivariate and Partial Correlations of the Predictors with the Country of Residence Index

5. Cross-cultural communication model

The purpose of communication is to transfer ideas and knowledge from one entity to the other. The first step in communication is input; someone must say something that is received by someone else. The communication loop is successful when the receiver demonstrates that he or she understands what was being communicated. From an organizational perspective there are many barriers than can impede the flow of communication. These barriers include culture, technology, language, workforce, and environment. For the purpose of this model culture refers to the traditions and customs that are prevalent in the country where each company is located. These traditions and customs influence policies and procedures implemented by businesses. Technology is simply the use of mediums such as email, Internet, text messaging, and cell phones to communicate. When a company does not have experience using a particular technological medium to communicate it may rely on older methods that the other company views as inadequate. Language is what is spoken in the country where the company is located. If the languages of the two companies are different, then one company must learn the other’s language or a new language must be created. Workforce refers to the internal structure of the company, including employees, managers, and organizational leaders. Environment refers to the external forces that affect the company. For example, the economy can have an adverse impact on an organization and present an obstacle to cross-culture communication.

As illustrated in Figure 1 , when these barriers are eliminated companies are able to experience innovation, reduced conflict, and better dissemination of information. J. Ku-Hyun (personal communication, July 20, 2009) stated “to be successful as a global corporation communication is critical.” Without communication organizations will cease to be. The challenge for organizations that must communicate cross-culturally is to ensure that their message is understood the way that it was intended. When communication barriers are not removed it is easy to make assumptions about what is being communicated. Our assumptions of what we thought was being communicated can be very different from the original message. Communication takes effort, it is much easier to sit back and simply assume what we think others are trying to tell us. To actively engage in communication takes time and energy. Organizations must be willing to invest the resources needed to support cross-culture communication.

Successful cross-cultural communication creates a dialogue, a continuous transfer of information. This exchange of information addresses our assumptions and clarifies points we do not understand. It also provides the opportunity for us to ask questions and confirm the information that was received. Having a dialogue reduces conflict because cultural misunderstandings can be dealt with when they arise. The dialogue only occurs when both parties agree to share information and ensure that the transfer of information is not blocked.

Cross-Culture Communication Model

6. Samsung and Hyundai

To illustrate how companies can utilize the cross-culture communication model to improve business practices consider the examples of Samsung and Hyundai. Samsung is unique because of its focus on human resources and risk taking initiatives. The company was founded in 1938 and is the world’s largest conglomerate. Samsung is recognized as a global industry leader because of its inner capacity to take advantage of distinct initiatives (J. Ku-Hyun, personal communication, July 20, 2009). It hires a small percentage of non-Koreans inside Korea but employs a higher percentage off non-Koreans outside of Korea. The culture of the organization is very family centric. Decisions occur in a collective atmosphere that allows for communication at all levels of the organization. However, even when decisions are clearly communicated throughout the organization employees may not always show support.

The workforce can represent a barrier to cross-cultural communication when employees feel they are not valued. This presented an issue at Samsung. The expectation was that you stayed at job until your assignment was completed. However, with the increase of younger employees entering the workforce who had different expectations, Samsung had to make a change. Management made the decision to change the workday from five-to-nine to seven-to-four [ 15 ]. The reason for Samsung’s change was to get employees to be more team oriented and more productive. Changing the hours of the workday required employees to work together and it also required managers and supervisors to have a more active role in completing daily tasks. The seven-to-four schedule was a cultural shift that was instigated by new employees entering the company with a different outlook towards work and personal time. Prior to the change, employees were expected to stay on the job until it was completed. With the change the office closed at four and everything stopped. Now employees have to proactively plan their workday in order to ensure that everything is accomplished in a timely fashion.

Samsung has been able to become a global leader because of its commitment to the development of technological capabilities [ 16 ]. Management’s objective is to “develop technology capabilities for value creation in diverse business areas” that will ultimately support growth in global competition [ 16 ]. The focus on innovation requires the sharing of business practices and technology throughout the organization. Samsung must communicate with employees and customers simultaneously to ensure that company objectives are met.

J. Ku-Hyun (personal communication, July 20, 2009) reports that Samsung’s competitive advantages include 1) commitment to work that is translated into speed advantages, 2) highly skilled engineers and technicians, and 3) management talent and experience. Samsung has used these competitive advantages to enhance its relationship with customers and expand globally.

Hyundai Motor Company was formed in 1967 and has established itself as company that focuses on quality improvement and innovation [ 17 ]. From the small beginning in Seoul, Korea the company has now expanded to more than ten countries including the United States, Canada, India, China, Turkey, Russia, Malaysia, Sudan, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, and Japan [ 17 ]. For this expansion to take place requires effective communication that is able to overcome cultural barriers and accomplish global management initiatives. Research conducted by Wright, Suh, and Leggett revealed that Hyundai’s achievement at globalization depended upon its ability to expand international sales as it gained experience in international markets [ 18 ]. The move from domestic to global production means Hyundai must operate in “unfamiliar and uncertain economic and cultural contexts” [ 18 ].

Over the years Hyundai has learned valuable lessons on the importance of knowing and valuing the needs of its customers. In the early 1990s, Hyundai experienced problems when trying to expand production to Canada. The primary issue was that the company did not adapt the design of the Sonata for North American customers [ 18 ]. Consequently, the company lost market share to Toyota’s Camry and Honda’s Accord. Another important lesson was learned when Hyundai made the decision to start production in Turkey because of the lower cost for workers. Because of the lower wages management decided to use more hand-operated technology instead of the automated manufacturing processes utilized in its domestic plants. As a result, the production rate of the Turkish plant was 25% lower than that in Korea [ 18 ]. From these experiences Hyundai learned the importance of researching the culture of a country before making profound business decisions. Cross-culture communication involves adapting organizational policies to fit the context of where business transactions will occur.

Key to Hyundai’s success is its corporate philosophy that places the needs of customers as top priority in all business areas. This customer-oriented management style requires organizational leaders to be receptive to new ideas and to think outside the box. To encourage employees to expand their cultural awareness the company encourages three-month assignments to its overseas sites. For example, when the company was building a site in Alabama it allowed employees to visit and study the culture [ 19 ].The company promotes an employee backpack travel program around the globe where teams of three design their cultural experience. The teams compete for a company sponsorship of 15-day expeditions by writing what they hope to learn [ 19 ]. More than 47 teams have traveled to 70 countries, including Peru, Turkey, and Greece [ 19 ]. Employees that participate bring back what they learn and share it with their colleagues.

“Hyundai Motor Company is strengthening its position as a global brand, establishing local production systems on a global scale and supplying automobiles that meet the needs and tastes of customers in each specific region” [ 17 ]. During a visit to the Asan Plant located in Chungchungnam-do, Korea, it was very apparent of how the company is being innovative. The plant has a production capacity of 300,000 units and utilizes the latest in robotic technology to assemble vehicles (Tour Guide, personal communication, July 27, 2009). One unit is produced every 57 seconds and 100% of all the welding is completely automated. The Asan plant has 34,000 employees; the average annual salary is $50,000. The plant operates two ten-hour shifts and provides numerous incentives for employees that are innovative on the job.

7. Conclusion

The researchers proposed attending the 2nd Korea-America Student Conference in order to develop a relationship with participants that have a vested interest in global issues and to define the criteria for the proposed cross-culture communication model by using various qualitative methods. These objectives were accomplished and much insight gained into understanding how culture affects communication.

Samsung and Hyundai are only two examples of organizations that are effectively communicating cross-culturally. Both organizations have been able to learn from their past mistakes and create strategies that support their growth in the global market. The sharing of information makes it possible for other organizations to also benefit from the mistakes made by these organizations.

During one of the group observations a Korean participant stated, “A smile is a basic tool of communication” (personal communication, July 16, 2009). How true it is that a simple smile can break down communication barriers and build bridges of understanding. Cross-culture communication is not easy, especially when we are unfamiliar with the receiver of the information. Organizational leaders that have to communicate cross-culturally can use the following steps:

Develop clear and concise expectations for how the organization will accomplish its mission;

Ensure that employees understand their role in the organization;

Be willing to invest time to communicate;

Remember that communication is a two-way process, listen before you speak.

“Many misunderstanding have occurred, not only because of mistakes in the usage of words or expressions, but also because of the lack of goodwill and cultural knowledge” [ 8 ]. Mistakes are a normal part life and at times if we are not careful our mistakes can have lasting consequences. “We can make mistakes as long as we can correct mistakes. We can get feedback from the global market” [ 10 ]. The cross-culture communication model developed from this study provides a mechanism for obtaining feedback from the global market. The model identifies the barriers to cross-culture communication and summarizes the outcomes that can be achieved when these barriers are tackled.

The results of study verified that the five independent variables of acceptance, conflict, individualism, risk, and sharing could be used to predict country residence. A limitation to this study was the small sample size that used. In order to validate the validity and reliability of the study a larger sample size should be used in future studies. The participants of the study were also aware of the need to increase cultural awareness and displayed a desire to gain a deeper understanding of American and Korean relations. The study adds to the current body of knowledge on cross-culture communication by demonstrating the importance of culture in business settings.

Organizational cross-functionality or connectivity is essential to innovation because it brings together a diverse group of people from different functional backgrounds [ 20 ]. Management must take steps to ensure that cross-functionality does not create conflict and hinder communication within the team [ 20 ]. To effectively generate innovation the level of expertise and individual skill set of each team member must be ascertained. The innovation process is supported when members share a common vision and goal. Research indicates that cross-functional teams are more effective at new produce development that is valued by the customer [ 21 ].

Leadership is the foundation to cross-functionality because it provides the oversight and direction necessary for it to work. Leaders that are innovators are receptive to change and value feedback from those around them. They recognize that they cannot be successful unless those around them are successful. For innovative organizations it is necessary for management to develop innovative leaders. This is done by having in place recruitment strategies that target successful applicants that possess the skills necessary to the organization to the next level [ 22 ]. There should also be in place a well-developed talent-management process that identifies innovators, connects them to the mission of the organization, and provides the necessary internal resources for them to be successful.

The 4 C’s Global Leadership Model

A comparison of leadership strategies between Samsung and Hyundai provides the basis for developing the 4 C’s Global Leadership Model that can be employed by organizations to make certain that they have the right person for the job. The model consists of four key factors: communication, conflict, creativity, and connectivity. Being aware of what types of individuals make good global leaders allows the organization to develop HR policies to support recruitment and succession. By creating a pipeline of capable global leaders the organization is able to sustain innovation and change.

Leaders are the main link responsible for harnessing the ideas of employees to create innovation. They must also assess the development of their competitors and the needs of customers. Bringing together individuals from different cultural backgrounds will lead to conflict; however, this does not have to be perceived as a negative. The challenge for global leaders is to use the conflict as a benefit for the organization. Gehani and Gehani define conflict as simply the result of natural differences that occur between people from different backgrounds [ 23 ]. Different ideas and views lead to innovation and new products and services. From this perspective leaders should encourage healthy conflict. “Conflict between diverse groups of people can be used to drive the growth of their organizations” [ 23 ]. If there were no conflict to spark discussion there would be no innovation.

Communication helps to moderate the relationship between conflict and innovation. This fact is furthermore impacted by the complexity of competing in global environment. Leaders must be aware of the communication styles that are needed when working with multicultural teams. The use of the email, conference calls, and other technological innovations to communicate need to be addressed to ensure that all members are able to participate fully. When members feel they are not able to communicate openly innovation is hindered and the organization suffers.

As global competition continues to increase, successful organizations must evolve to meet the changing needs of consumers. Innovation provides the opportunity for organizations to think outside the box and “produce better product, faster, cheaper and more efficiently than competitors [ 24 ]. Creativity is directly linked to communication and innovation. Increased attention on innovation has caused organizational leaders to develop systems to manage the process and support the efforts of employees. According to Dooley & O’Sullivan being able to identify the correct process for implementing innovation will directly impact the success [ 24 ]. It is easier to implement innovation when the culture of the organization allows for employee feedback, planning, and evaluation.

Employees play a vital role in innovation. In research conducted by Barnett and Storey it was found that there was a strong connection between learning and innovation in organizations [ 25 ]. The researchers studied 220 employees at a manufacturing company, Tensator, located in the United Kingdom. Key to Tensator’s success is their ability to integrate succession planning with sustaining innovation [ 25 ]. Instead of focusing solely on keeping top management positions filled, the organization seeks to keep the pipeline of skilled laborers in amble supply to support innovation. Tensator follows a growth strategy that centers on “grow-your-own” [ 25 ]. This strategy requires the company to continually provide learning and development opportunities for employees to ensure that they remain at the top of their game.

Microsoft is applying a holistic approach to innovation in seeking to compete with Yahoo and Google in the development of search engines [ 26 ]. Management is aware they must do more than simply try to catch up with their competitors; they must redesign the way that search engines are viewed and utilized. The holistic approach is further supported by Porter in work done with organizations to help them improve their supply chains [ 27 ]. Organizations that use a holistic approach are able to obtain a broader view of how they fit into the global market. Instead of focusing on small segments of their business operations, attention is given to the entire process. This allows for the organization to implement innovation that will create value for customers.

Connectivity is defined as the ability to orchestrate organizational networks to move in the same direction in order to accomplish the company’s mission. Employees must feel contacted to the organization and understand how their individual effort contributes to the bottom line. Global leaders must look for opportunities to connect everyone within the organization to the overall goals and objectives. When employees understand the big picture and the direction the organization is taking innovation and change are supported.

The 4 C’s Global Leadership Model is designed to provide a basis for organizational leaders to use in mapping out strategies for working globally with multicultural teams. The business environment is continually evolving and global leaders must persistently develop new organization strategies to meet global challenges. Although, Samsung and Hyundai both compete in different industries there are parallels that can be gleamed from how they communicate and inspire innovation from their employees. The Cross-Culture Communication Model and 4 C’s Global Leadership Model are tools designed to assist organizational leaders to compete in the ever-changing global environment.

The core aspects of global leadership critical to leading innovation and change are vision, communication, and responsibility. In 2008 a group of scholars and business leaders identified twenty-five factors that are important for managers in implementing innovation [ 28 ]. Key among them was that management must have a clear vision for the organization. The organizational vision provides a roadmap for employees by defining what the organization hopes to accomplish.Communication is important because it allows for the exchange and refinement of ideas. Effective communication requires that organizations not become bogged down with hierarchal thinking that can typically slow down the communication process. Large organizations must operate like small organizations and be able to respond quickly to organizational and market changes [ 28 ].

Successful organizations must focus on goals that are socially responsible [ 28 ]. Innovation is not just creating the coolest new gadget but it is creating the coolest new gadget that serves the environment in a sustainable manner. As organizations become more global the focus on corporate social responsibility increases. Organizations can no longer operate within a silo. The actions of one organization can affect many others. According to Westlund it is no longer sufficient for organizations only to make a profit and comply with the law [ 29 ]. They must also be socially responsible and give something back to the global community that they serve.

• 3. Habbi House. The American Embassy Residence Seoul, Korea. 2009
• 4. American Chamber of Commerce in Korea. AMCHAM Korea’s Constitution. http://amchamkorea.org/about/constitution.jsp accessed 15 August 2009
• 6. ICS. International Student Conferences. http://www.iscdc.org/ (accessed 17 August 2009).
• 10. Lim, Wonhyuk. Korea export-oriented industrialization. Lectured presented at Korea Development Institute. Seoul, South Korea. 2009
• 15. Lee, H., Lee, J., Lee, J., Choi, C. Time to change, time for change: How was time used to change a global company? Academy of Management Proceedings, August 2005.
• 17. Hyundai Motor Company. Hyundai Motor Company PR Brochure 2008 1 60

© 2012 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Essay on Cross Cultural Communication

Students are often asked to write an essay on Cross Cultural Communication in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Cross Cultural Communication

What is cross cultural communication.

Cross Cultural Communication is the way we talk and understand people from different cultures. This is important in our global world where we meet people from different countries and cultures. It helps us to respect and understand each other better.

Benefits of Cross Cultural Communication

Challenges in cross cultural communication.

Sometimes, cross cultural communication can be hard. This is because different cultures have different ways of doing things. For example, what is polite in one culture might be rude in another. So, we need to learn about these differences to communicate well.

Improving Cross Cultural Communication

To improve cross cultural communication, we can learn about different cultures. Reading books, watching movies, or talking to people from different cultures can help. We should also be patient and open-minded. This means we should not judge others quickly and be willing to learn.

Also check:

250 Words Essay on Cross Cultural Communication

Cross cultural communication is about how people from different cultures talk and understand each other. It’s like a bridge that connects different cultures. This type of communication is very important because it helps us learn about different cultures and respect them.

Why is it Important?

Imagine you are talking to a friend from a different country. You both speak English, but there might be words or phrases that your friend does not understand. This is where cross cultural communication comes in. It helps us to understand and respect each other’s cultures. It can also help prevent misunderstandings.

Cross cultural communication can be hard sometimes. For example, some words or gestures might have different meanings in different cultures. A thumbs-up might be a good sign in one culture, but not in another. Also, some people might find it hard to understand accents or slang words from other cultures.

How to Improve Cross Cultural Communication

500 words essay on cross cultural communication.

Cross cultural communication is the exchange of ideas and information between people from different cultural backgrounds. It is like a bridge that connects people from all around the world. This type of communication is important because it helps us understand and respect each other’s cultures.

Why is Cross Cultural Communication Important?

Cross cultural communication is key in today’s global world. It helps us work together, learn from each other, and build stronger relationships. For example, when people from different cultures work together on a project, they bring unique ideas and perspectives. This can lead to better solutions and innovations.

Cross cultural communication is not always easy. There can be misunderstandings and conflicts due to differences in language, gestures, and social norms. For instance, a gesture that is considered polite in one culture might be seen as rude in another.

Second, try to learn the basics of the other person’s language. This can show respect and make communication easier. If that’s not possible, use clear and simple language to avoid confusion.

In conclusion, cross cultural communication is a vital skill in our diverse world. It can bring people together, promote understanding, and lead to new ideas and innovations. While it can be challenging, with respect, patience, and a willingness to learn, we can all become better cross cultural communicators.

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3 Situations Where Cross-Cultural Communication Breaks Down

• Ginka Toegel
• Jean-Louis Barsoux

And how to rise to the challenge.

The strength of cross-cultural teams is their diversity of experience, perspective, and insight. But to capture those riches, colleagues must commit to open communication; they must dare to share. Unfortunately, this is rarely easy. In the 25 years we’ve spent researching global work groups, we’ve found that challenges typically arise in three areas.

• Ginka Toegel is a professor of organizational behavior and leadership at IMD Business School in Lausanne, Switzerland.
• Jean-Louis Barsoux is a term research professor at IMD and a coauthor of ALIEN Thinking: The Unconventional Path to Breakthrough Ideas (PublicAffairs, 2021).

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Cross-cultural communication and other essential soft skills for international students

Have you heard of soft skills? What about cross-cultural communication? Soft skills are non-technical skills that are necessary for personal and professional success, and cross-cultural communication is one crucial soft skill for people living, studying, or working in the US or abroad. As an international student, you may already be familiar with cross-cultural communication whether from your home country or previous travels. Below, we suggest ways to grow your cross-cultural communication skills and ways to develop them specifically in the US.

Why are soft skills important to international students? 

Many international students in college tend to focus on learning and mastering the technical skills and knowledge related to their field of study. However, there is another set of skills called soft skills that are essential to career readiness in the US:

• Communication
• Self-awareness
• Organization and time management
• Adaptability 

These soft skills will help you understand the people around you and interact with them in appropriate ways. Most jobs require you to communicate and collaborate regularly with people who may be different from you, so employers often value soft skills just as much as they value technical skills. Recruiters may start looking for evidence of these skills right away when they meet international students. They want to know that potential candidates will be strong communicators and integrate well into their established company culture.

Cross-cultural communication is a vital soft skill for anyone in the US

At its core, cultural awareness is about being well-rounded and open-minded to differences. Cross-cultural communication is the ability to communicate effectively with people from different cultures and backgrounds. It’s essential for living in the US because the US is a racially and ethnically diverse nation. Cultural awareness can help prevent miscommunication or accidentally offending someone. Self-awareness is also needed because it allows you to understand how your own culture impacts how you communicate. 

Tips for cross-cultural communication for international students

• Pay attention to cultural norms for communication in the US and how they vary by situation depending on who you are talking to and where you are. Observe and practice as much as possible. You could even try talking in front of a mirror or recording yourself to gain more awareness of your verbal and nonverbal communication. 
• Notice cultural differences in organization and time management. US institutions and businesses usually run on strict timelines. This may differ from your home country. 
• In academic, professional, and social situations in the US, it’s common for people to take turns talking. While in some cultures, it is common for people to talk over each other, that is not the case in the US. If you struggle with this, practice waiting 1-2 seconds before responding to someone. 
• Try different active listening techniques such as nodding and eye contact. These are types of non-verbal communication used commonly in the US.
• Avoid generalizing all Americans based on limited interactions. Instead, try to socialize and practice speaking English with students from various cultures and backgrounds. Keep in mind that there are many different cultures in the US, and there are regional differences in how people communicate as well. For example, people on the East Coast are often more direct while people in the Midwest and on the West Coast may use more passive communication.
• Be careful of using slang and colloquialisms as they can be context-specific and could be offensive to some. Be cautious when using humor because there are different types of humor in different cultures. Again, err on the side of caution to avoid awkward or harmful interactions.
• Share from your own culture and language too. Learning is a two-way street!

Final thoughts on soft skills and cross-cultural communication in the US

Soft skills do not have to be elusive for international students. They are concrete skills that can be developed and improved upon by anyone. You may find that certain soft skills come more naturally to you than others. Take inventory of your soft skills and communication style, and look for areas where you need help or could improve to better your experience as an international student in the US. Throughout this process, remember to stay open-minded and practice speaking with other people. While it’s ok to look for patterns, it’s also key to appreciate the vast differences in communication styles across and within cultures. 

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• DOI: 10.62051/ijgem.v3n3.24
• Corpus ID: 271554815

Effective Strategies for Cross-Cultural Business Negotiations

• Xueqing Liu
• Published in International Journal of… 28 July 2024
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8 References

Cross-cultural business-to-business communication – the experiences of polish companies with the chinese and americans, do dimensions of culture exist objectively a validation of the revised minkov-hofstede model of culture with world values survey items and scores for 102 countries, culture , leadership , and organizations : the globe study of 62 societies, related papers.

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• Published: 07 August 2024

The present situation of the nursing practice environment and its influence on nursing quality in a post-epidemic era: a cross-sectional study

• Xiaotong Liu 1 , 2 ,
• Yabin Guo 1 , 2 ,
• Yang Zhou 2 &
• Yang Zhou 1 , 2  

BMC Nursing volume  23 , Article number:  543 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

Nursing Practice Environment is an important index to improve nursing quality and patient outcome. To explore the nursing practice environment in the COVID-19 ward during the period of COVID-19 and its impact on nursing quality to provide reference for setting up supporting nursing team in epidemic area in the future.

A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 251 nurses working in COVID-19 ward in Shanghai, Hainan and Hunan in December 2022 through stratified proportional sampling. Structured questionnaires, including general information questionnaire, professional practice environment scale and nursing quality questionnaire, were used to investigate the patients. Pearson correlation was used to analyze the correlation between nursing practice environment and nursing quality, and multiple linear regression analysis was used to analyze the influencing factors of nursing quality in the COVID-19 ward.

The professional practice environment scale score was (3.34 ± 0.40), the nursing quality questionnaire score was (9.47 ± 0.81), both at a high level. Single factor analysis showed that nursing quality was related to educational background, physical condition, professional title, grade of the original hospital and composition of nursing staff in supported departments. Nursing quality were positively correlated with each nursing practice environment dimensions (in addition to teamwork). The results of regression analysis showed that the nursing practice environment in the COVID-19 ward had a positive impact on nursing quality.

Conclusions

The nursing practice environment and nursing quality of nurses in the COVID-19ward is generally very high. The education, working hospital level and nursing practice environment of nurses are the important factors influencing nursing quality. The relationship between nursing practice environment (include leadership and autonomy in clinical practice, staff relationships with physicians, control over practice, communication about patients, handling disagreement and conflict, internal work motivation and cultural sensitivity) and nursing quality is positive. It is suggested that the hospital should pay special attention to and improve nursing practice environment in order to improve nursing quality when setting up temporary ward in the future epidemic period of infectious diseases, ensure patient safety.

Impact on clinical practice

Research shows that an active nursing practice environment can improve the quality of care, and nursing managers create and maintain an active practice environment to improve the quality of care and ensure patient safety.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The professional practice environment is defined as the organizational characteristics of a nursing practice environment that promotes or restricts professional nursing practice [ 1 ]. A positive professional practice environment can make nurses put into professional practice, enhance communication and cooperation between doctors and nurses, and promote healthy patient outcomes [ 2 ]. At the same time, a good environment of professional nursing practice also helps to reduce burnout, improve nurses’ job satisfaction, and improve the quality of patient care [ 3 , 4 ]. On the contrary, a poor practice environment for nurses will make nurses dissatisfied with their profession, fatigue, burnout and intention to leave in nurses working, resulting in reduced anticipation of and sensitivity to potential dangers and increased more missed nursing care events, affecting patient safety [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. The study found that the working environment of nurses was directly related to nurse satisfaction and patient safety [ 6 , 9 ]. Hence, creating a safe and loving practice environment for nurses can help nurses become more motivated and reduce existing concerns about the quality of care.

The emergence of the human coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 strain plunged the world into a new infectious disease pandemic in 2019. As the first country to detect COVID-19, China has effectively controlled the epidemic in 2020 and implemented normalize management of the epidemic. It has entered the post-epidemic period, which is characterized by frequent outbreaks of small intensity [ 10 , 11 ]. In the post-epidemic era, hospitals should not only continue to undertake routine diagnosis and treatment, but also have to be in a state of readiness to combat outbreak of COVID-19. By the end of the 2021, our nurses had reached 5.018 million, according to the National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China [ 12 ]. When the epidemic breaks out, the Chinese government will organize nurses from all over the country to support local hospitals, and patients will be arranged in specialized COVID-19 ward. The deterioration of the working environment as a result of the COVID-19 (e.g. increased risk of infection, increased psychological burden, physical discomfort caused by prolonged wearing of protective gear, etc.) and the critical condition of patients lead to the excessive work pressure of nurses, making them more likely to develop negative emotions such as fatigue, insomnia and psychological stress, affect the quality of care and patient safety [ 13 , 14 ]. Good professional nursing practice environment can help reduce burnout, improve nurse job satisfaction, improve patient care quality [ 3 , 4 ]. Therefore, it is necessary to provide high-quality care supported by experience and research, strengthening of basic nursing measures, and overall enhancement of nursing services in the COVID-19 Ward, reduce the length of hospital stay and reduce the morbidity and mortality of COVID-19 pneumonia.

However, as we known researchers did not study how the nursing practice environment in the COVID-19 ward of designated hospitals in China had concrete impact on the quality of care. Chen et al. [ 15 ] noting the changes in the nursing environment brought about by COVID-19 and nurses’ views, but this study is not a quantitative survey on the effect of nursing practice environment on nursing quality. The purpose of this study is to describe the nursing practice environment of nurses in the novel coronavirus ward, improve the current situation of the nursing practice environment in the novel coronavirus ward, so as to promote the improvement of nursing quality, better play the important role of nurses in the COVID-19 ward, and provide reference for the occurrence of similar major infectious diseases in the future.

Study design

This study followed the STROBE guidelines for cross-sectional study. This cross-sectional survey in which nurses were invited to fill out a COVID-19 ward care quality questionnaire through a questionnaire website. ( https://www.wjx.cn/ )

Participants and sample size

This study selected hospitals in Hainan Province, Hunan Province and Shanghai City, three regions with severe epidemics in the country (one hospital in each region), the total number of anti-epidemic nurse in the three hospitals was 534. After obtaining the informed consent of the hospital and participants, a proportionate stratified sampling technique was conducted according to the strata of different departments on nurses on the COVID-19 ward from December 21 to 27, 2022. A complete list of qualified nurses (for sampling purposes) was first provided by the nursing department to determine the proportion of nurses to be drawn from each hospital. Subsequently, the number of nurses drawn from each department was then determined by the ratio of the number of nurses in each hospital department to the total number of nurses in the hospital. Inclusion criteria include; (1) Nurses holding nursing certificate; (2) Now or ever worked in the COVID-19 ward, with working hours ≥ 4 h per day for at least two weeks; (3) Participants gave informed consent and were able to cooperate with the study. The nurses who quit after filling in the form of informed consent were excluded.

The Cochran formula for estimating sample size was used, where t = 1.96, p  = 0.5,d = 0.05. The formula is as follows;

The sample size was calculated by the Cochran formula to be 223, considering a 10% non-response rate, and finally the required sample size was calculated to be at least 245 cases.

Measurement tool

This research questionnaire consists of three parts: general information questionnaire, Professional Practice Environment scale(Professional Practice Environment scale, PPE)and the nursing quality questionnaire.

General information questionnaire

The questionnaire was constructed by consulting domestic and foreign literatures and clinical experience, collected the gender, age, marital status, physical status, education, work experience (years), professional titles and positions, composition of nursing staff in supported departments, whether the nurse has intensive-care unit working experience, grade of the original hospital.

Professional Practice Environment scale(PPE)

Professional Practice Environment scale is used to measure the current situation of nursing practice environment, Constructed in 2004 by Erickson, Duffy, Mary et al [ 1 ]. A total of 38 items were used to measure occupational practice environment characteristics. The scale consists of eight dimensions, including leadership and autonomy in clinical practice(5 items), staff relationships with physicians (2 items), control over practice (7 items), communication about patients (2 items), teamwork (4 items), handling disagreement and conflict (8 items), internal work motivation (7 items) and cultural sensitivity (3 items). Each item is divided into 4 options, from 1 point “strongly disagree” to 4 “strongly agree”. The average score range of each dimension and its items is 1 to 4. The higher the score, the better the professional practice environment. PPE scale has been used in various studies and proved to have good reliability and validity. This research adopts the Wang Xia [ 16 ]. The Cronbach’α coefficient of the revised scale was 0.89 after cultural adjustment. Previous Study [ 17 ] have utilized a critical value of 3.0 to describe the work environment for nurses in China, which accurately assessed working environment of nurses. Therefore, this study selected a 3.0 dimensions score to describe the status of nursing perceptions of the professional practice environment.

The nursing quality questionnaire

The nursing quality questionnaire was developed based on the nursing sensitivity index system of respiratory medicine department, which was established by Cui Jin-rui et al [ 18 ]. The total Cronbach α coefficient was 0.884. This is a self-assessment questionnaire, categorized into seven distinct dimensions(55 items): ward management(8 items), nursing risk assessment and implementation(5 items), nursing practice(12 items), nursing operation technique(13 items), important examination and test indicators(7 items), health education(5 items) and doctor-nurse-patient cooperation(5 items). Each dimension score is the average of the sum of the scores of all entries within that dimension, each dimension ranged from 0 to 10. The total scale score is the average of 55 items. The higher the score, the better of nursing quality.

Data collection

The project leader provided uniform and standardized training to nursing administrators in three hospitals before the start of this study, instructing them to clarify the exclusion criteria and important considerations before distributing the questionnaires. The survey questionnaires were distributed by the nursing administrators of each hospital to the nurses online. Participants were invited to complete the COVID-19 Quality of Ward Care Questionnaire online via a questionnaire website. ( https://www.wjx.cn/ ). Once the data collection was completed, the researcher exported and organized the data collected from the online questionnaire into Excel tables. After deleting the invalid data, the organized data from these Excel tables were imported into SPSS for analysis.

Data analysis

SPSS version 26.0 software was used to analyze the data. The measurement data were expressed as mean and standard deviation, and the counting data were expressed as frequency and percentage. T-test, analysis of variance, Pearson correlation analysis, and multivariate Regression analysis nursing quality were used to analyze the influencing factors, and the differences were statistically significant with P  < 0.05.

Quality control and ethical considerations

This study was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Xiangya Hospital, Central South University(No.202211250), and it strictly adheres to the ethical guidelines as outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. Firstly, We invited the nursing managers ( n  = 10) of the COVID-19 ward to work together to develop the quality of care questionnaire, after three rounds of meetings to discuss the questionnaire to determine the entries, the questionnaire was filled out by 15 nurses on line prior to the formal survey, and after filling out the questionnaire, a one-on-one interview was conducted, and 15 nurses agreed that the questionnaire was clearly expressed, free of ambiguity, and easy to understand, and the questionnaire was finally finalized to ensure the usability of the questionnaire. The questionnaires were only to be filled out after the participants had fully understood the study and provided their consent, either orally or in writing. After obtaining participants consent to distribute the online questionnaire, an informed consent form was set up on the first page of the questionnaire, and if the participant chose “No”, the survey was automatically closed. Participants was clearly communicated that they had the right to withdraw from the study at any time, without facing any repercussions. All the collected information is encrypted on questionnaire website, The researcher logged into after obtaining an account and password through the authorization of the project leader to view the questionnaire collection.

Participant characteristics

A total of 252 questionnaires were collected. After excluding those with missing data, a total of 251 questionnaires were included in the calculation, with an effective recovery rate of 99.6%. The average age of the participants was (32.97 ± 6.61). There were 222 female participants. 77.7% of the nurses had more than 6 years working experience. In terms of education, 72.1% of the nurses had a bachelor’s degree, and 80.5% of the COVID-19 ward were composed of supported nurses from several hospitals. A univariate analysis showed that, there were significant differences in nursing quality among nurses with different educational background, physical condition, professional title, grade of the original hospital and composition of nursing staff in supported departments. ( p  < 0.05) (Table  1 ).

Components of nursing quality questionnaire

The average score of nursing quality questionnaire of nurses in the COVID-19 ward was (9.47 ± 0.81), and the scores of all dimensions in descending order were as follows: nursing operation technique (9.65 ± 0.77), ward management (9.58 ± 0.79), nursing practice (9.50 ± 0.91), important examination and test indicators (9.47 ± 0.98), nursing risk assessment and implementation (9.46 ± 0.99), health education (9.39 ± 1.09), doctor-nurse-patient cooperation (9.26 ± 1.12).

Components of professional practice environment scale

Table  2 shows the mean and standard deviation of the total PPE scale scores and dimensions for all participants. As shown in Table  2 , the average score of PPE scale for nurses in the COVID-19 ward was (3.34 ± 0.40), nurses generally believed that the working environment was good.

Correlation analysis between the nursing quality dimensions of nurses in COVID-19 ward and nursing practice environment

Table  3 showed the results of Pearson correlation analysis, the total mean score of professional practice environment was positively correlated with the total mean score of nursing quality ( r  = 0.46, p  < 0.01). The seven dimensions of the professional practice environment(leadership and autonomy in clinical practice、staff relationships with physicians、control over practice、communication about patients、handling disagreement and conflict、internal work motivation and cultural sensitivity)was a positive correlation between the score and nursing quality ( p  < 0.01).Moreover, the results showed teamwork ( r  = 0.12, p  = 0.06) has no significant correlation.

Results of multiple linear regression of nursing quality in COVID-19 wards

Multiple linear regression was used to explore the influence of different population characteristics and nursing practice environment on nursing quality. The assignment table is shown in Table  4 . As shown in Table  5 , multiple linear regression showed that grade of the original hospital ( β  = 0.128, p  = 0.021), education ( β =-0.179, p  = 0.001) and professional practice environment( β  = 0.458, p <0.001) were influencing factors of nursing quality, explained 25.8% of the variance in nursing quality scores.

The purpose of this study was to explore the present situation of nursing practice environment and its influence on nursing quality. The results of the study showed that the nursing practice environment in the COVID-19 ward was good, and the nursing practice environment had an impact on the nursing quality, specifically as follows:

The status of nursing practice environment in COVID-19 ward

The results of this study showed that the average PPE score was (3.34 ± 0.40). Among them, the dimension of staff relationships with physicians had the highest score (3.53 ± 0.53), it shows that the medical cooperation in the COVID-19 ward is close and the harmonious relationship has been established. However, the teamwork dimension has the lowest average score(3.01 ± 0.68),and “This ward can not get the cooperation it needs from other wards” and “The lack of close cooperation with other departments of the hospital limits the effective development of work in this ward” had low scores, indicated the bad cooperation between the nurses in the ward. Good doctor-nurse relations but low scores for teamwork are consistent with a work environment for retired nurses in China [ 19 ]. In addition handling disagreement and conflict dimension score is also low, At the same time, “Everyone ignores or avoids disagreement between members” is the lowest, This indicates that the cooperation between nurses and the communication between nurses and other wards needs to be strengthened. On the one hand, faced with the risk of cross-infection during a pandemic, the COVID-19 ward is under closed management, there is a lack of effective communication between departments. Previous studies also have pointed out that physical barriers (i.e., personal protective equipment) and spatial barriers (i.e., social distance) implemented during the pandemic disrupted workflow and communication and affected teamwork [ 20 , 21 ]. On the other hand, a study pointed out that health care workers in COVID-19 critical care were more likely to frequently work with each other than those in non–COVID-19 critical care [ 22 ]. 85.2% of the nurses ( n  = 92/108) in the ICU ward came from different hospitals in our study. Due to the different age, geography, and cultural level of nurses in each area, as well as the difficulty of establishing effective teamwork in a short period of time in a temporarily formed team, which leads to unsuccessful teamwork. Effective teamwork is facilitated by timely, frequent, accurate, problem-solving communication based on shared knowledge, common goals, and mutual respect [ 23 ]. Therefore, nursing managers should pay attention to the relationship between doctors and nurses, encourage the exchange of important clinical information between nurses and doctors, and strengthen the cohesion and teamwork of the whole team.

At the same time, we found that the internal work motivation dimension scores were at the top. Moreover, “I feel a high degree of personal responsibility for the work I do.” and “My discipline controls its own practice” also rank at the top, it indicated that the nurses thought that the working conditions of the COVID-19ward were better and the nurses had a high sense of responsibility, which made the nurses mobilize their own enthusiasm. Research shows that individual factors (e.g., emotional intelligence, self-reflectiveness, confidence, communication style), attitudinal factors mediated by the team (e.g., accountability, commitment, values or enthusiasm), and lastly socio-economic factors (e.g., education, culture) were all found to influence individual’s attitudes and behaveours vis-à-vis colleagues, impacting the work environment in which teamwork occurred [ 24 ]. Organizing teamwork training and clarifying team roles can improve team relationships [ 25 ], It is suggested that the manager should carry out team cooperation according to the situation of the ward, and make clear the nursing responsibility of each nurse, attach importance to the opinion of each nurse, and jointly create a harmonious and mutual help working environment.

The status of nursing quality in COVID-19 ward

According to the results of this study, the nursing quality of Chinese nurses during the COVID-19 period was relatively high, and the average score of nurses in the COVID-19 ward was (9.47 ± 0.81).Based on previous research [ 26 ], we believe that is related to higher standards, stringent ward environment in the COVID-19 ward and to the increased professional competence of nurses.

Nurse characteristics have relationship between high nursing quality and patient results [ 27 ]. A total of 88.4% female nurses participated in the study, 60.6% were between 26 and 35 years old, and 31.1% had worked for 6 to 10 years. The results showed that the front-line nurses were all experienced nurses, which enabled them to provide quality care. In addition, a shocking the nursing quality scores for associate degrees or below are higher than those for bachelor’s, which may be because of the It may have to do with the fact that highly educated nurses demand more from their own development. The more educated nurses are, the more demand for your own development, thus scoring lower on the self-assessed quality of care scores.

We showed that the highest score dimension was nursing operation technique (9.65 ± 0.77), which indicated that all nurses performed the operation according to the ward standard. And the dimension with the worst score is “doctor-nurse-patient cooperation” and “health education”. This may be due to the busy clinical work of nurses, long working hours, heavy tasks of epidemic prevention leading to insufficient attention and assessment to patients. Moreover, nurses may reduce direct contact with patients and doctors at work due to fear of infection, thus resulting in poor health education for patients and communication with doctors Meanwhile, patients felt anxious and reluctance to communicate with medical and nursing staff due to the disease. Therefore, hospitals should strengthen the knowledge related to 2019 coronavirus disease pneumonia training so that nurses can receive timely, accurate, precise and comprehensive education on health knowledge and disease assessment, and relieve patients’ tension and anxiety through humanistic care and health education so that they can actively cooperate with treatment and care.

Nursing quality on COVID-19 wards is influenced by multiple factors

The regression analysis showed that the nursing quality was influenced by the degree of education and the rank of Nursing Hospital, which is consistent with the study by Fitzpatrick et al [ 28 ]. This may be related to the fact that highly educated nurses have a more systematic knowledge of nursing and are more likely to work in higher-level hospitals, and that examinations are more frequent in level 3 hospitals than in level 2 and lower hospitals. In China, hospitals are classified into three levels from small to large based on their scale (staffing, hardware facilities, research capabilities, etc.) [ 29 , 30 ]. Among them, the third-level hospitals are representative of the large comprehensive hospitals in our country, often possessing more advanced large medical equipment and medical technology, and are responsible for important tasks such as the treatment of critical illnesses and specialized diagnosis and treatment [ 29 ]. Nursing quality is an important indicator for evaluating the level of hospitals, so nurses in higher level hospitals tertiary hospitals tend to face high level of work requirements, which poses a higher challenge to the nurses’ own competence. Previous studies [ 31 , 32 ] have shown that nurses in tertiary hospitals have stronger professional competencies such as information competency and emergency management competency than nurses in secondary and lower hospitals. This shows that it is necessary for nursing managers to focus on the cultivation of nursing professional skills, particularly for nurses at the secondary level and below hospital, which is ensures the quality and efficiency of nursing services. The results of this study show that education was a negative variable of nursing quality. This may be due to the fact that healthcare workers with higher academic qualifications may have a heavier workload, not only needing to complete clinical frontline medical and nursing care, but also different roles such as teaching, scientific research, management, and so on, which gives them a higher sense of responsibility for their patients, resulting in a greater work pressure [ 33 ], and thus impacting on the quality of their care. In addition, the number of nurses with Master degree or above in this study was only 11 (4.4%), so it is necessary to continue to expand the sample in the follow-up study for further in-depth analysis.

Numerous studies have demonstrated that a better professional nursing practice environment can lead to higher nursing quality [ 34 , 35 , 36 ]. The results of correlation analysis showed that the nursing practice environment all other dimensions except teamwork, were positive related to nursing quality. We hypothesized that it may be due to the particularity of the setting of the COVID-19 ward. The better the nursing practice environment was, the higher level of nursing quality in the COVID-19 ward was. Zelauskas et al [ 37 ]showed that environment of professional nursing practice means that the nurse in nursing service, through authorized managers have more autonomy, and responsibility to work environment. A study of 69 hospitals in 217 Chinese provinces found that the longer nurses worked in COVID-19 ward, the worse the quality of care [ 38 ]. At the same time, Cheng et al [ 15 ] showed that COVID-19 had brought positive changes to the nursing practice environment. For example, nurses have a greater say in the organization and work more closely with doctors. However, there are also some problems, such as the difficulty of ward management and increased occupational risks, and the safety and comfort of the ward environment need to be improved. Therefore, it is suggested that managers should arrange shift patterns scientifically, optimize and rationally allocate personnel, provide adequate rest time, and reduce the workload of nurses, ward managers need to develop simple and standard management patterns, establish good ward facilities and rest environment.

This study has some limitations. First of all, this study aimed at the cross-sectional investigation in the post-epidemic period, is a specific environment. It is not applicable after the COVID-19 pandemic, provides reference for similar outbreaks of infectious diseases in the future. Second, the data in this study were the result of nurses’ self-report, so there may be bias. However, this study can provide a reference for nursing managers to improve the quality of nursing care from the perspective of improving the working environment during the outbreak of infectious diseases.

Our study participants were nurses in the COVID-19 ward of designated hospitals, our evidence and recommendations will contribute to improved care practices.

The results showed that the working environment of the nurses in the COVID-19.

ward was good, and the nursing practice environment was much improved compared with the previous studies, especially the leadership ability, autonomy and cultural sensitivity in the clinical practice. However, team cooperation is not good enough. COVID-19 wards require multidisciplinary teamwork, so we should focus on training nurses’ team cooperation ability to promote the friendly development of the ward. In addition, nurses’ clinical practice ability affects nursing outcomes. Among the seven dimensions of nursing quality, doctor-nurse-patient cooperation scored the lowest, which also indicates that doctor-nurse-patient communication needs to be improved. The quality of nursing is influenced by grade of original hospital, nursing education and nursing practice environment. Therefore, sending excellent nurses and training local nurses, promoting good cooperation between medical and nursing staff, and improving the working environment of nurses can effectively improve the quality of care.

Even though we are a temporary team, the nursing practice environment and nursing quality of nurses in the COVID-19 ward are still at a high level in the post-epidemic period, the level of nursing quality was different with different characteristics (grade of the original hospital, education). In addition, the nurse practice environment has proven to have a positive impact on the quality of care. PPE scale score (include leadership and autonomy in clinical practice、staff relationships with physicians、control over practice、communication about patients、handling disagreement and conflict、internal work motivation and cultural sensitivity)was correlated with nursing quality score. In order to improve nursing quality, it is suggested that nursing managers should adopt supportive management, arrange human resources reasonably, authorize appropriately, cooperate with each other to create a good working environment, to enable nurses to have a better working state to deal with ward nursing matters, thus improving the quality of clinical care.

Data availability

The data generated in this study can be obtained from the corresponding author through reasonable demand.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to sincerely thank all nurses who participated in this study.

This work was supported by the key R&D projects of the Science and Technology Department of Hunan Province(2024JK2133) and the Teaching Reform Project for Ordinary Higher Education Institutions in Hunan Province (2023JGB043).

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Z.Y.*: Conceptualization and design. LXT: Writing-Original draft preparation. GYB&ZY: Investigation, Methodology. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Liu, X., Guo, Y., Zhou, Y. et al. The present situation of the nursing practice environment and its influence on nursing quality in a post-epidemic era: a cross-sectional study. BMC Nurs 23 , 543 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-02202-6

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-02202-6

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