Some recommendations are not applicable, such as the use of masks and gloves if these items are not found
Failure to adapt the methods and recommendations provided to the culture of the community
Lack of planning involves invalid information and a lack of consistency in informing the public.
Participants believed that invalid information and instability in information-related decisions were indicative of the authorities' lack of planning in the COVID-19 outbreak. The confusion of health policymakers in the decision-making process, the government's different decisions to declare closures for different jobs, and the variable decisions of managers were among the issues that the participants referred to.
The Ministry of Health and Medical Education and the health authorities do not have specific credible channels and entries, so weaknesses and conflicts are transferred to the community, then their authority is destroyed, and people lose confidence in official sources (Interviewee 5).
The reasons for the officials' lack of planning in this pandemic involved managers' changing decisions, people's confusion about whether COVID-19 was getting serious or not, lack of foresight and preparedness of the government to guide people, failure to implement preventive measures to mitigate the confusion of people, and politically ignoring the support and experience of other countries.
Due to the fact that the news and information about the Coronavirus unfortunately reached the people very late, the members of the community partially underestimated the epidemic, and no training was provided (Interviewee 1).
This involved lack of transparency from the officials in informing people, and a lack of trust on the part of people due to authorities downplaying the seriousness of the crisis. The government's secrecy in providing information about the number of deaths and infections led to people shifting their attention and trust to unofficial channels, which was a sign of their lack of social trust.
People's attention and trust in unofficial channels was expressed as one of the signs of social distrust. People always think that the government is hiding the facts from the foreign channels or from other media, that is, we have a kind of unhealthy atmosphere (Interviewee 1).
Participants cited a lack of transparent information in the early days of the epidemic and lack of timely information as some of the reasons for people's distrust.
The more realistic and transparent we talk to people, the more we can gain people's trust. People traditionally trust centers that have long been among their safe havens. Well, naturally, medical centers are one of these centers (Interviewee 10).
The lack of transparency in the statistics was another reason for people's distrust.
For example, even in the case of statistics, it is not yet clear whether the statistics are real or not. Even if they weren't real, it would definitely be a good reason behind it that I don't want to talk about. There is probably a reason, and I have to admit, they don't want to announce the actual statistics (Interviewee 2).
This theme includes a lack of consistency of published information and various media and informational sources. The lack of an integrated scientific reference led to parallel work, lack of consensus among experts on some scientific topics, and information confusion when comparing multiple information sources.
Recently, The Islamic Republic of Iran Medical Council has been working for itself, which is, in my opinion, wrong. All of this must be centralized, and in fact we must have a position of information management under the supervision of the Ministry of Health and Medical Education. All material produced must first be approved by the Ministry of Health and Medical Education, and then reach the public (Interviewee 17).
This included disagreement between officials and disregard for different specialties. Lack of consensus among authorities and ignoring the different specialized opinion of experts led to conflicts of interest.
Every organization considers its own interests and does not value us (the Ministry of Health and Medical Education). They do not follow government orders, even if it is to their detriment. Therefore, providing information under these conditions will not be effective (Interviewee 1).
The multiplicity of nontechnical spokespersons in the national media and noncompliance with professional privacy were some of the issues raised by the participants.
Well, I don't know what's behind the scene. But when we hear and compare their official statements, there are all kinds of conflicts in the policies and words of health policymakers (Interviewee 5).
This category included parallel information provision streams from the media and a lack of valid information provision channels. The existence of multiple telephone lines multiple websites created by different individuals indicated a lack of an integrated information source in the country.
One organization said we would give people a phone number, another said we would create a website. However, everyone wants to have an information channel (Interviewee 2).
Lack of knowledge about where to go for information and parallel work in informing indicated the lack of an integrated information source in the country.
People don't know where to get information and which information source to trust. Well, the existence of social networks makes information available to the public, but the important thing is to trust our own mass media or a foreign media (Interviewee 11).
This category included provoking people through cyberspace, speculations caused by following the cyberspace information sources, easy access to unreliable sources and virtual networks, misuse of virtual networks by profiteers, each person having a tribune in the cyberspace, and increasing public concern by foreign channels.
I spend almost 90% of my time dealing with and denying false news. Sir, this is not true, sir, this is not true, sir, this is not true, and then the one I can say is right is what the Ministry said. So it is better, at least for ourselves, to have the unity of voice as always (Interviewee 3).
The gap between the data reported by the government and that reported by foreign media on the disease has raised concerns.
If people are given regular statistics, their fears will be reduced (Interviewee 3).
This category included a wide dissemination of information and diffusion of false information. From the participants' point of view, the high volume of available information and the anarchy of information in COVID-19 caused anxiety and confusion among people.
The most important problem, in my opinion, is that people are confused about information, that is, they have become so bombarded with information that they can't really decide what to do (Interviewee 10).
The availability of multiple sources of information, the dissemination of false news on virtual networks, and lack of information refining have prevented people from distinguishing between right and wrong information.
Valid and reliable information must be given to people. People receive general information about COVID-19 from various media outlets, but they do not have the same information about necessary actions, such as disinfecting surfaces. One source says make Javelle water and bleaching solution with a ratio of 1:4. Another source says make it with a ratio of 1:49, another says make it with the ratio of 1:100. Individuals and/or organizations give different instructions (Interviewee 17).
This category included disinformation, contradictory information, limited access to information, and misinformation. Lack of access to accurate and comprehensive information about the disease and the lack of accurate statistics on the number of infected individuals have caused concern.
We do not have accurate statistics. We don't know how many patients we have, how many samples have been sent, how many have been positive and how many have been negative. This causes fear and panic among people (Interviewee 14).
Participants acknowledged that the spread of rumors and false news by virtual networks has accelerated the dissemination of low-quality and misleading information.
At present, the media and social networks in the country have spread false information among people by spreading rumors in the community. Of course, there are reasons why we may have caused this (Interviewee 7).
Appropriate behavioral patterns among authorities and the public in epidemics regarding the production and distribution of information in various media are very helpful in promoting public awareness and knowledge for the prevention of epidemics.[ 17 ] In the present study, participants believed that provided medical information should be organized, simple, and fluent and in a language that is easy to understand by ordinary people to reduce concerns and anxieties of people. As many behavioral fears and reactions naturally arise from a lack of knowledge, rumors, and misinformation, providing clear, concise, and accurate information about COVID-19, and user-friendly ways to access such information reduce the public's focus on rumors.[ 18 ] According to the participants' views, multiple instructions from different universities, the presence of multiple articles and longwinded instructions, and the presence of multiple sources of information that must be compared have led to confusion. Moreover, they emphasized that people must refer to reliable information sources such as the website of the Ministry of Health and Medical Education, doctors' inquiries, the National Broadcasting Media, and trustworthy online news, to reduce their worries about the virus and to prevent being infected with misinformation. The WHO states that insufficient information about the coronavirus increases the likelihood of mistrust in government and authorities. In addition, this organization recommends searching for information from reliable sources, such as radio and television, and national newspapers, once or twice a day instead of once every hour, helping people manage and reduce their stress.[ 19 ] As worst-case scenarios are usually accelerated when there is no information, leaders should provide the most up-to-date information about COVID-19 for health workers to know how to protect themselves and what to do if they encounter it. In addition, the leaders should anticipate what questions might arise and prepare their answers well. In this way, they are empowered with reliable information so that they can help themselves and control their stress.[ 20 ] In their study, Stirling et al . found that 66.4% and 55.3% of medical students depended on the internet, and television and radio for getting coronavirus information, respectively.[ 21 ] Participants in the present study acknowledged that a lack of clear information and normalizing the prevalence and risk of the disease by the radio and television channels at the beginning of the epidemic, lack of transparency in the statistics provided to the public, provision of politically biased information, government secrecy and untruths, rumors, and dissemination of various pieces of false news in virtual media led to people's concern and confusion in obtaining accurate and reliable information. The findings of the present study were consistent with Baines study, showing that a lack of transparency and delay in public urgency led to fears among the health authorities and delays in disclosing information about COVID-19, spreading misinformation and rumors among the public, incorrect public forecasting, ultimately causing the unexpected dissemination of the virus.[ 22 ] Moreover, the findings of the present study were in line with those of Dong's study, showing that downplaying the severity of the epidemic of COVID-19 by the Chinese government in the early days caused people's distrust in the transparency and the decision-making capability of the government.[ 23 ] In the present study, according to the participants' views, the infodemic phenomenon led to people's confusion. In this regard, the presence of numerous information sources, the high volume of available information, people's anxiety caused by information anarchy, information redundancy, lack of information refining and cleaning instruments, and the misrepresentation of news in virtual networks were mentioned as examples. Lu's study showed that infodemic, including incorrect information about COVID-19 on social media and elsewhere, caused a major risk to people's mental health during this crisis.[ 23 ] In his study, Bains emphasized that, in order to fight infodemic, it was necessary to analyze all types of information, to have an integrated scientific approach, to have a clear and scientific definition of all types of information, and to avoid using wrong words.[ 22 ] The findings of the current study showed that provoking people through virtual networks, speculation due to following cyberspace channels, easy access to unreliable sources in virtual networks, and the misuse of virtual networks by profiteers were significant challenges people encountered. Allah Verdi believes that there is a difference between producing and disseminating COVID-19 health messages and disseminated unprofessional messages on social media. Hence, in order to break the chain of disease transmission, it is necessary for the health system to take measures to prevent the spread of misinformation.[ 24 ] Kouzy et al . analyzed 673 tweets and showed that the least amount of unconfirmed information was related to public health accounts and accounts of health-care services, while the most misleading information was related to personal and group accounts. Another noteworthy point in her study was the lower incidence of misinformation when searching the literature using COVID-19 instead of 2019_ncov and corona. She believes that incorrect medical information and a lot of unconfirmed content about COVID-19 are being widely published on social media, and it is necessary to intervene in this process to protect public safety.[ 25 ] The other challenges mentioned in the present study involved promoting people's awareness in an unfair environment structured around mistrust, higher levels of trust on the part of people in social media than mass media, people's distrust of official information sources, failure to take the virus seriously, failure to inform people by the national media, lack of managers' ability to attract public cooperation and trust, failure to provide timely information, and secrecy in reporting the number of COVID-19 deaths and patients. In her study, Sharma emphasized that the health-care organizations and other authorities should develop practical strategies for identifying credible and reliable information sources and disseminating valid information about COVID-19. In addition, she argues that, using scientific methods, such as data mining, for identifying and removing those messages in virtual networks which have no scientific evidence behind them is one of the legal measures that can be taken.[ 26 , 27 ] In the current study, provision of contradicting content from different sources; obtaining information from invalid sources, which creates anxiety; lack of a reputable reference source to answer all relevant questions; contradiction between official media news and social networks; availability of information from multiple and contradictory channels; and lack of knowledge on where to go for reliable information were among other challenges noted by the participants. Hua described the reasons of China's success in controlling COVID-19 as a strong government, implementing restrictions, and people's immediate participation. In the early stages, the highest judicial authority's guidelines on false news constituted an important step toward reducing confusion and panic among people.[ 12 ] In Medford's study, about half of the tweets scared people and about 30% were surprising them, among which the political and economic impacts of COVID-19 were the most important discussion topics.[ 28 ]
Shankar pointed out that one of the challenges for medical staff in dealing with cancer patients, who wanted to find accurate information to adapt to the conditions of COVI-19, was the existence of a large volume of information on virtual networks.[ 29 ] Health ministries and health education specialists in various countries should design an interactive dashboard to deal with the release of huge amounts of inaccurate information and misinformation, provide real-time information, and eliminate rumors related to COVID-19 around the world.[ 24 ] In his study, Bastani emphasized that health department's managers should have practical perspectives on managing public information in the community.[ 30 ]
With the COVID-19 pandemic, information seeking, especially on social media, emerged as one of the major challenges facing the affected communities. In this regard, the large volume of information and the lack of a reliable source to obtain accurate information, especially in the early days, caused concern and anxiety among people. In this study, the main information challenges that people in Iran faced included the lack of a scientific reference source to access accurate information, the existence of a large volume of information in virtual networks, and a huge volume of statistics and detailed news from various information channels that caused confusion among people. Therefore, considering the fact that epidemiological predictions show the high likelihood for the continuation or re-spread of this virus, it is recommended that health leaders identify and/or introduce a scientific authority for information related to COVID-19 in the country; introduce reliable information sources; provide simple, legible, and transparent information; and encourage people to improve their knowledge so that they can correctly interpret the right information, and keep themselves and their families safe from the virus.
This study was funded by Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran, with research code No. 198222.
There are no conflicts of interest.
We would like to thank all interviewees for their kind contribution. Moreover, the authors cordially appreciate Dr. Hasan Ashrafi-Rizi for his kind help and guidance.
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Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari. Revised on June 22, 2023. Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. ... Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology ...
Qualitative research is integral to the pandemic response. Qualitative methods are ideally suited to generating evidence to inform tailored, culturally appropriate approaches to COVID-19, and to meaningfully engaging diverse individuals and communities in response to the pandemic.
Qualitative research is a process of understanding and discovery based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore social or human experiences. ... However, the COVID-19 pandemic has forced qualitative health researchers to rapidly adapt their tried and true in-person methods and to explore, innovate, and quickly overcome ...
Qualitative research carried out during the COVID-19 pandemic can ask and answer questions which complement epidemiological data by providing insight into people's lived experiences of disease, care, and epidemic response efforts ( Teti et al., 2020 ). The exacerbation of social, health, and economic inequalities; the implementation of health ...
Abstract. This guide explains the focus, rigor, and relevance of qualitative research, highlighting its role in dissecting complex social phenomena and providing in-depth, human-centered insights. The guide also examines the rationale for employing qualitative methods, underscoring their critical importance. An exploration of the methodology ...
While many books and articles guide various qualitative research methods and analyses, there is currently no concise resource that explains and differentiates among the most common qualitative approaches. We believe novice qualitative researchers, students planning the design of a qualitative study or taking an introductory qualitative research course, and faculty teaching such courses can ...
What is qualitative research? If we look for a precise definition of qualitative research, and specifically for one that addresses its distinctive feature of being "qualitative," the literature is meager. In this article we systematically search, identify and analyze a sample of 89 sources using or attempting to define the term "qualitative." Then, drawing on ideas we find scattered ...
The substantially updated and revised Fifth Edition of this landmark handbook presents the state-of-the-art theory and practice of qualitative inquiry. Representing top scholars from around the world, the editors and contributors continue the tradition of synthesizing existing literature, defining the present, and shaping the future of qualitative research.
Abstract. The Oxford Handbook of Qualitative Research, second edition, presents a comprehensive retrospective and prospective review of the field of qualitative research. Original, accessible chapters written by interdisciplinary leaders in the field make this a critical reference work. Filled with robust examples from real-world research ...
Qualitative research is defined as "the study of the nature of phenomena", including "their quality, different manifestations, the context in which they appear or the perspectives from which they can be perceived ... 16, 19, 20, 27], and to ensure "information-richness . An iterative sampling approach is advised, in which data ...
Revised on 30 January 2023. Qualitative research involves collecting and analysing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research. Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which ...
Qualitative research methods were used as they are the most suitable to understand such a complex phenomenon as the participants' experience. The findings provided by interpretive phenomenology will serve to guide clinical practice, either in the assessment, identification of problems or intervention planning. ... the COVID-19 pandemic ...
Qualitative research is a type of research that aims to gather and analyse non-numerical (descriptive) data in order to gain an understanding of individuals' social reality, including understanding their attitudes, beliefs, and motivation. This type of research typically involves in-depth interviews, focus groups, or observations in order to collect data that is rich in detail and context.
COVID-19 has necessitated innovation in many parts of our lives—and qualitative research is no exception. Interviews are often the cornerstone of qualitative research and, historically, conducting them in person has been considered the "gold standard" (Novick, 2008; Opdenakker, 2006; Sy et al., 2020).Yet, in the COVID-19 era, in-person data collection—for semi-structured interviews ...
Qualitative research is the naturalistic study of social meanings and processes, using interviews, observations, and the analysis of texts and images. In contrast to quantitative researchers, whose statistical methods enable broad generalizations about populations (for example, comparisons of the percentages of U.S. demographic groups who vote in particular ways), qualitative researchers use ...
Qualitative research is a process of naturalistic inquiry that seeks an in-depth understanding of social phenomena within their natural setting. It focuses on the "why" rather than the "what" of social phenomena and relies on the direct experiences of human beings as meaning-making agents in their every day lives.
Qualitative Research. Qualitative research is a type of research methodology that focuses on exploring and understanding people's beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It seeks to answer research questions through the examination of subjective data, such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis.
Qualitative research can be defined as the study of the nature of phenomena and is especially appropriate for answering questions of why something is (not) observed, assessing complex multi-component interventions, and focussing on intervention improvement. ... 16, 19, 20, 27], and to ensure "information-richness . An iterative sampling ...
The major types of qualitative research designs are narrative research, phenomenological research, grounded theory research, ethnographic research, historical research, and case study research. The greatest strength of the qualitative research approach lies in the richness and depth of the healthcare exploration and description it makes.
Figure 19.8 Research journal entry tracking code development, I; Journal Entry Date: 10/04/19 Changed category [Income & expenses] to [Financial insecurities] to include new code "Not confident managing money" that appears to reflect a personal factor related to the participant's confidence or personal capability related to the topic ...
The most recent consumer behaviour research in JCB has considered externalities such as the COVID-19 pandemic and focused on themes such as consumer ethics and sustainable consumption in line with ...
Qualitative Research is a peer-reviewed international journal that has been leading debates about qualitative methods for over 20 years. The journal provides a forum for the discussion and development of qualitative methods across disciplines, publishing high quality articles that contribute to the ways in which we think about and practice the craft of qualitative research.
Qualitative research has ample possibilities within the arena of healthcare research. This article aims to inform healthcare professionals regarding qualitative research, its significance, and applicability in the field of healthcare. ... 2007; 19:349-57. [Google Scholar] 45. Yesodharan R, Renjith V, Jose TT. Improving nursing research ...
Almost two decades ago, at the first workshop/technical review on qualitative research methods and ethnography sponsored by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), Siegal (1977, p. 79) remarked that despite the existence of numerous excellent qualitative studies on drug abuse, "Ethnographers have had difficulty explaining precisely what ...
This research study adopted a qualitative descriptive design as described by Sandelowski [].The purpose of a descriptive study is to document and describe a phenomenon of interest [] and this method is useful when researchers seek to understand who was involved, what occurred, and the location of the phenomena of interest [].The phenomenon of interest for this research was the provision of ...
Table of contents for Qualitative Research, 19, 6, Dec 01, 2019. Abstract Significant social science research has been dedicated to determining and describing effective means of gathering data via the interview, while minimizing bias and accounting for the methodological and ethical problems created by gender power imbalance ...
What is qualitative research? If we look for a precise definition of qualitative research, and specifically for one that addresses its distinctive feature of being "qualitative," the literature is meager. ... Qualitative Sociology and Qualitative Sociology Review) for articles also published during the past 19 years (1998-2017) that had ...
The COVID-19 pandemic brought education to the forefront of many homes and school districts as families and educators shifted to virtual learning formats from their homes. ... This exploratory qualitative study investigated the lived experiences of special education teachers in one Midwest public school district in order to identify themes of ...
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To improve the provision of psychotherapy, many countries have now established clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of specific disorders and mental health concerns. These guidelines have typically been based on evidence from meta-analyses of randomized clinical trials with minimal consideration of findings from qualitative research designs. This said, there has been growing interest ...