Viscosity measurements in semi-solid metal processing: current status and recent developments
- Critical Review
- Published: 30 November 2021
- Volume 119 , pages 1435–1459, ( 2022 )
Cite this article
- Arumugampillai Megalingam 1 ,
- Asnul Hadi Bin Ahmad 1 , 2 ,
- Mohd Rashidi Bin Maarof 2 &
- Kumarasamy Sudhakar 2 , 3
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Semi-solid metal processing (SSMP) is an ideal method of producing high-quality products with fewer defects in casting technology. Viscosity is the most important physical and chemical property for the flow behaviour of the SSMP. Currently, there are several approaches, both theoretical and experimental, to evaluate the viscosity of semi-solid metals. This paper comprehensively reviews the single point and multi-point viscometry for SSMP. Features, similarities, and limitations of different viscometers for SSMP applications are then compared. The effect of influencing factors on the viscosity behaviour of SSMP is also highlighted. The importance of the non-dendritic globular microstructure and the instantaneous drop in viscosity caused by the scattering of solid particles during SSMP are explained. It is expected that the study will assist the researcher in identifying the best method of viscosity measurement during SSMP.
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Megalingam, A., Ahmad, A.H.B., Maarof, M.R.B. et al. Viscosity measurements in semi-solid metal processing: current status and recent developments. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 119 , 1435–1459 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-021-08356-w
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Experimental determination of viscosity (viscometer)
Viscometry is the experimental determination of the viscosity of liquids and gases with so-called viscometers.
Definition of viscosity (Newton’s law of fluid friction)
Viscosity describes the internal resistance to flow of a fluid (internal friction). It is defined by the shear stress τ required to shift two plates moving relative to each other. The higher the relative velocity Δv of the plates and the smaller the distance Δy between the plates, the greater the shear stress. The proportionality constant between these quantities is the (dynamic) viscosity η. This law is also known as Newton’s law of fluid friction:
\begin{align} \label{t} &\boxed{\tau= \eta \cdot \frac{\Delta v}{\Delta y}} ~~~&&\text{Newton’s law of fluid friction}\\[5px] &{\tau=\frac{F}{A}} ~~~&&\text{ shear stress} \\[5px] \end{align}
More detailed information on viscosity and Newton’s law of fluid friction can be found in the article Viscosity .
Rotational viscometer
The confinement of a fluid between two plates to define the viscosity is a very descriptive procedure, but is hardly feasible in practice. How should the fluid be held within the gap between two plates? In practice, therefore, a spindle is used which rotates at a constant speed in a cylindrical vessel. The vessel contains the fluid whose viscosity is to be determined. Such an apparatus for determining the viscosity is also called a rotational viscometer .
Depending on the viscosity, the drive of the spindle requires a certain torque. The higher the viscosity, the greater the torque required to keep the rotational speed constant. This torque is measured directly at the motor and can be used to determine the viscosity after an appropriate calibration. However, the rotational speed must not be selected too high, because at too high speeds no laminar flow is developed but a turbulent flow .
Falling sphere viscometer
The viscosity of a liquid can also be determined by experiments with a ball sinking into the liquid. The speed at which a ball sinks to the ground in a fluid is directly dependent on the viscosity of the fluid. The fluids used are mainly liquids.
The physicist George Gabriel Stokes derived the following equation, which shows the relationship between the speed v at which a sphere of radius r is drawn through a fluid of viscosity η and the resulting frictional force F f :
\begin{align} \label{s} &\boxed{F_f = 6\pi \cdot r \cdot \eta \cdot v} ~~~\text{Stokes’ law of friction} \\[5px] \end{align}
Note that Stoke’s law only applies to spherical bodies that are laminar flowed around!
If a ball is dropped in a viscous liquid, the speed increases at first until the opposing frictional force is as great as the weight force of the ball. For more accurate measurements, the upward buoyant force must also be taken into account. All three forces balance each other in the steady case and a constant sinking speed is obtained:
\begin{align} \label{gg} &F_g \overset{!}{=} F_f + F_b \\[5px] \end{align}
The weight force F g of the ball can be determined via the volume V b and the density of the ball ϱ b :
\begin{align} \label{g} &F_g = m_b \cdot g = V_b \cdot \rho_b \cdot g= \frac{4}{3}\pi r^3 \cdot \rho_b \cdot g\\[5px] \end{align}
The buoyant force F b is determined on the basis of the Archimedes’ principle from the weight force of the displaced liquid, whereby the displaced volume corresponds exactly to the volume of the ball:
\begin{align} \label{a} &F_b = m_f \cdot g = V_b \cdot \rho_f \cdot g= \frac{4}{3}\pi r^3 \cdot \rho_f \cdot g \\[5px] \end{align}
If one now uses the equations (\ref{s}), (\ref{g}) and (\ref{a}) and put them into equation (\ref{gg}), then the viscosity η of the liquid can be determined from its sinking speed v s :
\begin{align} &F_g \overset{!}{=} F_f + F_b \\[5px] &\frac{4}{3}\pi r^3 \cdot \rho_b \cdot g = 6\pi \cdot r \cdot \eta \cdot v_\text{s} + \frac{4}{3}\pi r^3 \cdot \rho_f \cdot g \\[5px] &6\pi \cdot r \cdot \eta \cdot v_\text{s} = \frac{4}{3}\pi r^3 \cdot \rho_b \cdot g ~- \frac{4}{3}\pi r^3 \cdot \rho_f \cdot g \\[5px] &6\pi \cdot r \cdot \eta \cdot v_\text{s} = \frac{4}{3}\pi r^3 g \left(\rho_b-\rho_f\right) \\[5px] \label{e} &\boxed{\eta = \frac{2r^2g}{9~ v_\text{s}}\left(\rho_b-\rho_f\right) } ~~~~~r \ll R\\[5px] \end{align}
When performing the experiment, however, the sink rate must not be too high. On the one hand, because then it cannot be ensured that a state of equilibrium has been reached before the ball hits the ground. On the other hand, a laminar flow around the ball must always be assured, which is not the case at high speeds, as turbulence is then created.
Furthermore, the radius R of the cylindrical tube should be large compared to the radius r of the ball falling within it, otherwise there will be flow effects between the ball and the tube wall that can no longer be neglected. This results in additional friction of the liquid flowing past and a reduction in the sinking speed of the ball (principle of hydraulic damping). Due to the finite radius of the tube, the sinking speed of the ball is therefore always measured too small in practice. Therefore, the sinking velocity is corrected with an empirical correction factor L (called Ladenburg factor ):
\begin{align} \label{h} &\boxed{\eta = \frac{2r^2g}{9 ~v_\text{s} \cdot L}\left(\rho_b-\rho_f\right) } ~~~\text{where}~~~ \boxed{L=1+2.1 \frac{r}{R}}>1 \\[5px] \end{align}
In practice, the correction factor is usually determined in advance of the test using a liquid of known viscosity.
Falling sphere viscometer by Höppler
The falling ball viscometer by Höppler is based on the falling sphere method described in the previous section. A ball falls to the ground in a tube which contains the liquid to be examined. Two markings are attached to the tube which indicate a defined measuring distance Δs (“falling distance”). The time Δt required for the ball to pass through this measuring distance is measured by means of light barriers. The speed of descent v s of the sphere is therefore given by the following formula:
\begin{align} & v_\text{s} = \frac{\Delta s}{\Delta t}\\[5px] \end{align}
If the formula for the rate of descent is used in equation (\ref{h}), the viscosity η of the liquid can be determined with the following formula:
\begin{align} &\eta = \underbrace{\color{red}{\frac{2r^2g}{9 \cdot \Delta s \cdot L}}}_{\text{constant}~ \color{red}{C}} \cdot \left(\rho_b-\rho_f\right) \cdot \Delta t\\[5px] \label{eta} &\boxed{\eta = C \cdot \left(\rho_b-\rho_f\right) \cdot \Delta t } \\[5px]\\[5px] \end{align}
The term marked in red is a specific constant of the measuring apparatus, which also depends on the test sphere used. Depending on the viscosity to be expected, the manufacturers of Höppler viscometers provide various balls for which the test constant C has been determined in advance.
This constant also takes into account that the tube is not exactly vertical, but inclined. Therefore the ball sinks not only by falling, but also by rolling. This rolling motion guides the test ball stably downwards. In this way, turbulence in the liquid is avoided and the validity of Stokes’ Law is ensured, i.e. in particular the proportionality between frictional force and sinking speed. In the case of turbulent flow, the frictional force would no longer be proportional to the sinking speed and the viscosity would no longer be a linear function of the duration of the fall – equation (\ref{eta}) would no longer be valid.
In order to study the temperature influence on the viscosity, the tube is usually placed in another tube filled with water. Circulating thermostats can be used to precisely control the temperature of the water bath and thus the liquid to be examined.
Capillary viscometer by Ubbelohde
The capillary viscometer is based on the Hagen-Poiseuille law for pipe flows. This law states that the volumetric flow rate V* through a capillary is dependent on the viscosity η of the liquid flowing through (assumed that the flow is fully developed):
\begin{align} &\boxed{\dot V = – \frac{\pi R^4}{8 l \eta}\Delta p } \\[5px] \end{align}
In this equation, R denotes the radius of the capillary and l its length. The pressure difference Δp corresponds to the pressure drop between the beginning and end of the capillary, which ultimately causes the flow of the liquid. Below the capillary is an L-shaped tube so that the same ambient pressure applies above and below the capillary. Thus the liquid is driven only by the hydrostatic pressure . The pressure drop Δp is thus dependent on the density of the liquid.
The volumetric flow rate through the capillary can be determined by measuring time and mass that has flowed through. However, manufacturers of capillary viscometers usually summarize the device-dependent variables such as radius and length of the capillary in a constant C. Thus, only the time period t has to be determined within which the liquid in the reservoir has passed two marks. In addition, the density of the fluid ϱ f is required, since this determines the pressure drop in the Hagen-Poiseuille law. With the following formula the viscosity η can then be determined:
\begin{align} &\boxed{\eta= C \cdot \rho_f \cdot (t-t_c)} \\[5px] \end{align}
As already mentioned, the Hagen-Poiseuille law only applies to a fully developed flow. At transition from reservoir to capillary (and up to some degree also within the capillary) however, the flow is not yet fully developed, but is accelerated. The energy required to accelerate the fluid means an additional pressure drop. To take this into account, the measured time is therefore corrected by a so-called Hagenbach correction time t c .
Dip cup viscometer
A very simple method for determining viscosity is the dip cup viscometer . This method makes use of the fact that the discharge of a liquid through a hole in a vessel also depends on the viscosity. Due to the high flow resistance, highly viscous liquids take a relatively long time to flow out through a hole in the dip cup . For a given cup volume, the time required to discharge the liquid is therefore a direct measure of viscosity.
Manufacturers of dip cups list the corresponding viscosity in their data sheets depending on the discharge time. Depending on the viscosity to be expected, different dip cups are to be used. In order to obtain valid results, the discharge time must also be within a certain range. If this is not the case, another dip cup must be used.
The dip cup viscosimeter is mainly used to determine the viscosity of paints or lacquers. These liquids would otherwise heavily contaminate conventional viscometers. Furthermore, very fast results are obtained with a dip cup viscometer, so that paints or lacquers can be checked and further processed immediately after mixing.
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Practically all industries rely on viscosity checks to develop, formulate, and produce a product with consistent characteristics. Many important parameters for the production control of materials and also for the development of new products are directly related to the product’s viscosity. Rotational viscometers are perfectly suited for the determination of the viscosity of samples ranging from liquid (e.g., nose drops, juices) to semi-solid (e.g., waxes, sauces). This article provides insights into the basics of viscometry, quality control parameters, and application examples.
Principles of viscosity
The physical quantity ‘viscosity’ gives information on how thick a fluid is and how easily it flows. In scientific terms, viscosity is the measure of a fluid’s internal flow resistance. If you compare a high-viscosity fluid such as honey to a low-viscosity fluid such as eye drops, you will find that at the same temperature, the honey flows slower than the eye drops. The two-plates model provides a mathematical description for viscosity (Figure 1). Think of a kind of sandwich [1]: There are two plates with fluid placed in-between. The lower plate does not move. The upper plate drifts aside very slowly and subjects the fluid to a stress, which is parallel to its surface: the shear stress (tau). The force applied to the upper plate divided by this plate’s area defines the shear stress. Force/area results in the unit N/m2. The shear rate (gamma-dot) is the velocity of the upper plate divided by the distance between the two plates. Its unit is reciprocal second [s-1]. According to Newton’s Law [2], shear stress is viscosity times shear rate. Therefore, the viscosity (eta) is shear stress divided by shear rate: ƞ= τ/γ ̇ Figure 1. The virtual viscous sandwich: the two-plates model.
Viscosity measurement with a rotational viscometer
Most rotational viscometers work according to the Searle principle: A motor drives a spindle inside a fixed cup (Figure 2). The test sequence is the following: The user attaches a spindle to the rotational viscometer and sets a speed. The spindle starts to rotate and the sample contained in the cup will follow this movement. While the driving speed is preset, the torque (better: the force) required for turning the spindle against the fluid’s viscous forces is measured. The operator receives the dynamic viscosity and the torque (mostly in %). For most commonly used spring-type viscometers, the rotation of the spindle causes a deflection of a spring. Several instrument models with different spring types are available in order to measure low-viscosity to high-viscosity substances. In case of low-viscosity substances, the spring needs to be sufficiently sensitive, whereas for samples in the high-viscosity range, a more robust spring is required. Figure 2. Rotational viscometer – Searle principle. Motor and measuring unit (1), stand (2), user interface (3), measuring spindle (rotor) (4), sample-filled cup (5).
Flow behaviour
Viscosity values are not constant values as they are affected by many conditions (Figure 4): • The ambient conditions: temperature and pressure. • The substance’s inner structure: A highly viscous substance features tightly linked molecules and resists deformation. • The shear rate or the shear stress as external force: This includes all kinds of actions like wiping a substance, or gravity. The influence further depends on the strength and on the duration of the external force. A viscosity curve is used to determine the flow behaviour of a substance. The viscosity is plotted against the shear rate (Figure 3). Such a curve can be generated with a rotational viscometer by increasing the shear rate step-wise with a defined measurement point duration. The temperature and other ambient conditions are constant. If a fluid’s internal flow resistance is independent of the external force (shear rate) acting upon the fluid, it is ideally viscous (Figure 3: curve 1). Such fluids are named Newtonian liquids after Sir Isaac Newton. Typical materials from this group include water, mineral oil, salad oil, and solvents. Shear-thinning behaviour (or: pseudoplastic) is characterised by decreasing viscosity with increasing shear rates (Figure 3: curve 2). Typical materials are coatings, glues, shampoos, and polymer solutions. Shear-thickening (or: dilatant) means increasing viscosity with increasing shear rates (Figure 3: curve 3). Materials that typically display such behaviour include highly filled dispersions, such as ceramic suspensions, starch dispersions, and dental filling mass. Figure 3. Viscosity curve. Different types of flow behaviour: Newtonian (1), shear-thinning (2), shear-thickening (3).
Yield point
The yield point (also called yield stress) is the lowest shear-stress value above which a material will behave like a fluid and below which the material will act like a solid [3]. The yield point is the minimum force that must be applied to those samples so that they start to flow. The yield point is of vital importance for many practical issues and applications e.g., for quality control of final products or for optimising the production process. The yield point is not a material constant but depends on the measuring and analysis method used. There are many different methods available. On rotational viscometers, the yield point is often calculated from flow curves measured with a linear increase of the shear rate. The yield point is calculated using model functions (e.g., Bingham, Casson, or Herschel-Bulkley). For all these approximation models, the yield point value τ0 is determined by extrapolation of the flow curve towards a low shear rate value (Figure 4). Each different model function produces a different yield point because the calculation is different. Figure 4. Flow curve. Sample without yield point (1), sample with yield point (2).
Another method for yield point determination is the vane technique. It is a very quick and easy method for analysing the yield point of paste-like samples. A vane spindle with four thin blades arranged at equal angles is used for the test. A constant low speed is preset on the rotational viscometer. The maximum yield stress, which can be detected during the measurement, is the yield point value. To illustrate the yield point in a graph, the torque is plotted against the time (Figure 5). The diagram has three typical regions [4]: • The shear stress increases due to deformation as an elastic response. • A shear stress peak is achieved due to a collapse of the microstructure of the material. This point is called the yield point. • A stress decay due to the structural breakdown can be visualised. Figure 5. Yield point determination with the vane technique (red line = yield point).
Example applications with various rotational viscometer configurations
Concentric cylinder systems: The viscosity of cough syrup was analysed using a spring-type viscometer (R-model for regular viscosity samples) with a concentric cylinder measuring system (Figure 6). Concentric cylinder systems are absolute measuring systems. Due to the defined spindle geometry, it is possible to calculate shear rate values. The sample volume needed for the measurement is relatively low (approx. 2 mL to 20 mL). In contrast, for a typical rotational viscosity test with standard spindles, a sample volume of 500 mL is required. In contrast to, for example, water and juices, cough syrup has a relatively high viscosity in order to coat the surface of the throat (Figure 7). To evaluate the flow behaviour of the sample, it is useful to calculate the shear-thinning index. If the value is >1, the sample is shear-thinning. If the value is <1, the sample is shear-thickening. The measured cough syrup has a shear-thinning index of 1, which means that the sample shows a so-called Newtonian behaviour. This means that the sample’s viscosity does not change, even if a higher speed is applied, for instance, during swallowing. Figure 7. Viscosity measurement of cough syrup. Cone-plate measuring systems: The quality of a gel for muscle and joint pain was controlled by rotational viscosity testing using a spring-type viscometer (R-model for regular/medium viscosity samples) with a cone-plate measuring system (Figure 8). The cone-plate system offers the chance to reduce the required sample volume for a viscosity measurement down to 0.5 mL to 2 mL. Moreover, cone-plate measuring systems provide absolute viscosity determinations for sophisticated and reliable measurements.
The Herschel-Bulkley model gives the product’s yield stress as well as the product’s flow index and consistency index (Figure 9). 93.38 N/m² need to be applied on the tube to make the gel flow. In order to prevent liquids like gels from flowing out of the tube when no force is applied, the yield point has to be analysed. A flow index of 0.4155 (<1) means that the gel has a shear-thinning flow behaviour. Gels have to show shear-thinning flow behaviour because the viscosity has to decrease when a force is applied, for example, when squeezing it out of a tube or applying it to the skin. Figure 9. Flow curve diagram and yield point determination of gel using the Herschel-Bulkley mathematical regression model. Vane spindles: The yield point of porridge was analysed using a spring-type viscometer (R-model for regular viscosity samples) with a vane spindle (Figure 10). Vane spindles are required for measuring the yield point of paste-like samples (also with particles). These spindles reduce slippage and minimise structural changes of the sample during immersion of the spindle. The spindles are also suitable for viscosity measurements at a certain speed. Vanes are relative measuring systems but are the only solution for measuring paste-like samples with particles. They are also cheap. The measured porridge shows a yield stress of 252 N/m2 (Figure 11). This parameter can be important for production, as it defines how much pump power is needed. Furthermore, it is known that the mouthfeel of food products is related to the yield stress. Creaminess correlates with a higher yield stress value. Figure 11. Yield stress measurement of porridge with vane spindle T-bar spindles with motorised stand adapter: The viscosity of mayonnaise was measured using a spring-type viscometer (R-model for regular viscosity samples) with a motorised stand adapter and T-bar spindle (Figure 12). A motorised stand adapter with T-bar spindles is a cheap and reliable measurement configuration for pasty, non-flowing samples like mayonnaise (without particles). The motorised stand adapter replaces the hand-wheel of the viscometer. Figure 13. Viscosity measurement of mayonnaise with a rotational viscometer equipped with a motorised stand adapter and T-bar spindle. The viscosity values of the last 30 s of the measurement have been averaged. It moves the spindle during the measurement up- and downwards within the sample at a slow speed. It eliminates the so-called ‘channelling’ problem. Any spindle that rotates constantly at the same height will create an air channel within the sample, which will lead to meaningless viscosity values as the sample is not in contact with the spindle anymore. The moving viscometer head with T-bar spindles eliminates this problem by continuously measuring the intact sample due to the helical spindle movement. At the beginning of the measurement, the viscosity of the mayonnaise is zero because the measurement started approximately half a centimetre above the sample (Figure 13). Then the spindle rotates through the sample, which leads to a viscosity plateau after a short period of time. Within this plateau, the viscosity can be averaged. The selected mayonnaise has an average viscosity of 14,830 mPa·s (74.2 % torque). The goal of production is that mayonnaise has a proper thickness for the application regardless of the fat content.
1. Mezger, T. 2011. The Rheology Handbook. 3rd revised edition. Hanover: Vincentz Network. 2. Newton, I. 1687. Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica (“Principia”). London. 3. ISO 3219:1994-10. 1994. Plastics – Polymers/Resins in the Liquid State or as Emulsions or Dispersions – Determination of Viscosity Using a Rotational Viscometer with Defined Shear Rate. 4. Genovese, D. B., and M. A. Rao. 2005. “Components of Vane Yield Stress of Structured Food Dispersions.” Journal of Food Science, 70(8): E498–E504.
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Searle principle: the instrument's motor rotates the measuring bob inside an immovable cup filled with slurry (α cyl.cone = 120 • ).
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Determination of Viscosity by Using Ostwald-type, Suspended-level and Rotating Viscometer Method A (Using Ostwald-type Viscometer) Method B: (Using the Suspended-level Viscometer)Method c: (using the rotating viscometer). today = new Date() if ((today.getHours() >=9) && (today.getHours() today = new Date() if ((today.getHours() >=18) && (today.getHours() =0) && (today.getHours() .reverse { unicode-bidi: bidi-override; direction: rtl; display:none;} Ankur Choudhary is India's first professional pharmaceutical blogger, author and founder of pharmaguideline.com, a widely-read pharmaceutical blog since 2008. Sign-up for the free email updates for your daily dose of pharmaceutical tips. .moc.enilediugamrahp@ofni :liamE Need Help: Ask Question No comments:Post a comment. Please don't spam. Comments having links would not be published. Popular Categories
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A viscometer is an instrument used to measure the co-efficient of viscosity of highly viscos liquid or fluid, like Caster Oil or Engine Oil, Glycerine, Honey and Transformer Oil by Searle's Viscometer. The value of the coefficient of viscosity for a liquid such as glycerine may be obtained at any desired height. The outer cylinder can be clamped at any desired height and inner cylinder revolves on pivots The inner cylinder is graduated in mm and slot is covered by a transparent cover, complete with scale pans and releasing pins.  Related Products Meter Scale Wooden Meter Scale Wooden Vertical Reading Vernier Caliper Vernier Caliper Stainless Steel Vernier Caliper IME Type Micrometer Screw Gauge 20x1mm Micrometer Screw Gauge 15x1mmHave a catalog? Know what you would like to buy? Save time, enter item and quantities here, when you are finished click on the shopping cart button. You are ready to check out, it’s that quick. Forgot Password ? Don't have an account ? Guest LoginSign up with Facebook or Google Already a Member? Forgot PasswordEnter the email address associated with your account, and we’ll email you a link to reset your password.   Maeyer’s Viscosity Apparatus  Viscosity Apparatus By Capillary Flow Method  Viscometer Searle’s Pattern It measures viscosity of every viscos liquid. The outer cylinder can be clamped at any desired height and the inner cylinder is graduated in mms and slot is covered by a transparent cover. Complete with scale pans and releasing pins. Related products Viscosity Apparatus Stokes Method Mobile : 9892256737 / 7021548561 / 8108474704 / 9821198397 Mobile: 7021548561 
 FRANCK – HERTZ EXPERIMENT SETUP DYNAMO MODEL (AC/DC) EBONITE ROD (Friction Rod), 30cm DRAWING BOARD EARTH INDUCTOR (1000 Turns) FORTIN’S BAROMETER SHOWCASE (Wooden)
The bourgeois charm of Siberia's oil capital If you’re driving west across Russia from the Pacific Ocean, the first thing that you notice upon entering the city of Tyumen is the McDonalds. Tyumen has long been one of the only Siberian cities with a McDonalds restaurant. Although the fast-food giant has plans to open locations in nearby Novosibirsk and other regional cities, Siberia still contains one of the longest distances on earth outside of Africa where you can remain on a major highway and not see a McDonalds. Until you reach Tyumen, that is. A stop in Tyumen provides an interesting glimpse into how modern Russia’s oil revenue has influenced Siberia’s oldest Russian city. Tyumen is a great stopover point on the Trans-Siberian Railroad and a short ride from Yekaterinburg (five hours) or Tobolsk (four hours). In the 16th century, Russia started expanding eastward into parts of Central Asia ruled by the Tatars, an Islamic people who still live thoughout Russia. A band of Cossacks wrested control of Tyumen from the Tatars in 1580. Six years later, Russians established a fort in Tyumen on the Tura River. For centuries, Tyumen vied with the nearby city of Tobolsk—once the official capital of Siberia—for the prestige of the region’s most important city. Tyumen won in the end, when the Trans-Siberian Railroad bypassed Tobolsk and was routed through this now oil-rich city. Tyumen played an important role in Russian history during times of war. At the beginning of the Russian Civil War, the Bolshevik Red Army slowly pushed the White Army, commanded by Admiral Alexander Kolchak, into Siberia. Kolchak and his anti-Bolshevik forces holed up in Tyumen until the Red Army overtook them in January of 1918. During the Second World War, many Russian industries were moved away from the front to Siberian cities. Tyumen had already become an industrial capital during the early Soviet era, and the city became an ideal spot to relocate Russia’s western factories. As Nazi forces approached Russia in 1941, the embalmed body of Vladimir Lenin was sent from the Lenin Mausoleum in Moscow’s Red Square by train to the Tyumen State Agricultural Academy for safekeeping. In 1945, Lenin’s body was shipped back to Moscow. Some of the factories relocated to Tyumen during wartime remained in the city. The discovery of oil in the region catapulted Siberia’s oldest Russian settlement to further prosperity. Modern Tyumen is a vibrant city with a number of universities and a revamped center well-suited for exploration by foot. Start your walking tour around central Tyumen on Ulitsa Respubliki. The city’s main drag has fine pedestrian walkways and leads wanderers past an impressive collection of tsarist-era buildings that recall Tyumen’s importance in the beginning of Russia’s colonization of Siberia. From the southeastern end of Ul. Respubliki, head north toward the Tura River and take a brief side trip onto Ul. Ordzhonikidze to visit the Fine Arts Museum (47 Ul. Ordzhonikidze) which houses exhibits of classical Russian and Soviet art as well as traditional bone carving and works produced by the native people who live in the far north of Tyumen Oblast. Back on Ul. Respubliki, you’ll soon see the city’s requisite Lenin statue by the local government buildings. A block away, opposite Lenin, is Tyumen’s city park, a delightful place to walk or hop on one of its amusement rides. Most Siberian cities developed under the watchful eyes of the atheist Soviet regime and churches are usually not Siberia’s strongpoint. But this isn’t true in four-centuries-old Tyumen. Strolling up Ul. Respubliki, you’ll soon come to the Church of the Saviour (41 Ul. Lenina) and the Znamensky Cathedral (13 Ul. Semakova). Each of these stunning Baroque-influenced churches are located right off Ul. Respubliki and were built in the late 18th century. Tyumen is also famous for its historic wooden houses. Heading further up Ul. Respubliki, stop to wander around some of the side streets and snap photos of these ornate wooden structures which provide a glimpse back in time. Near the Tura River, you’ll pass a civil war monument in remembrance of the Tyumen natives who died fighting the White Army and the Tyumen State Agricultural Academy (7 Ul. Respubliki) an impressive building in its own right where Lenin was stored during the Second World War. Near the end of Ul. Respubliki, take a walk over the Tura River on the Lover’s Bridge, a suspension bridge open to foot traffic only that has become one of Tyumen’s iconic sights. The other side of the river is a great place to see more of Tyumen’s signature wooden houses as well as take in the churches scattered around the city center. Save the best for last and visit the Trinity Monastery (10 Ul. Kommunisticheskaya) at the end of Ul. Respubliki. A white wall surrounds the monastery, giving it the appearance of a mini-kremlin, and the golden onion domes of the 18th century churches within should not be missed. Although navigating Tyumen is straightforward enough, the St. Petersburg-based travel company OSTWEST can arrange a city tour in Tyumen and the surrounding countryside. All rights reserved by Rossiyskaya Gazeta. to our newsletter! Get the week's best stories straight to your inbox This website uses cookies. Click here to find out more.
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In this video, I have discussed the theory of Searle's viscometer to find the viscosity of a high viscous fluid and derived the formula to find the viscosity. Video is created using open-source ...
In the concentric cylinder viscometer (coaxial double cylinder viscometer or simply coaxial cylinder viscometer), the viscosity is determined by placing the liquid in the gap between the inner cylinder and the outer cylinder. Viscosity measurement can be performed by rotating the inner cylinder (Searle type viscometer) or the outer cylinder (Couette type viscometer), as shown in Figures 2.2.10 ...
The viscosity of a given sample using Redwood viscometer should be denoted with Redwood seconds at the specified temperature. Repeatability of the experiments should be duly compared at low and high temperatures.
Subbiah Pandian Viscosity 5 Searle s Viscometer Experiment 3 in English SubbiahPandian 3.03K subscribers Subscribed 59 5.5K views 6 years ago ...more
In the Searle-type viscometer, the outer cylinder (cup) is fixed, and the inner cylinder (bop) is set to rotate, for example, Stormer viscometer and Brookfield viscometer [ 103 ].
The objectives of this experiment are: (1) to derive an equation to determine the viscosity of a fluid using the Thomas Stormer viscometer, (2) to develop a methodology to calibrate viscosity measurements from a Cole Palmer viscometer, and (3) to recommend the best viscometer for use in measuring the viscosity of oils.
Searle principle is a common though neglected piece of theory that is in use every day. The Searle principle is primarily concerned with the relation of a motors torque to the dynamic viscosity of the liquid under test. The Searle principle is commonly used in many rotational viscometers. The rotational viscometers have many different shaped bobs used and suited for varying situations, here we ...
Viscometry is the experimental determination of the viscosity of liquids and gases with so-called viscometers.
Viscosity measurement with a rotational viscometer Most rotational viscometers work according to the Searle principle: A motor drives a spindle inside a fixed cup (Figure 2). The test sequence is the following: The user attaches a spindle to the rotational viscometer and sets a speed.
Download scientific diagram | Searle principle: the instrument's motor rotates the measuring bob inside an immovable cup filled with slurry (α cyl.cone = 120 • ). from publication: Rheological ...
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Learn how to determine the Viscosity by Using Ostwald-type, Suspended-level and Rotating Viscometer.
A viscometer or rheometer is employed to measure the flow/deformation behavior of a liquid/viscoelastic food. Viscometers are conventionally used to measure the viscous properties of thin and thick liquids while rheometers are more sophisticated than a viscometer to measure the viscous and viscoelastic characteristics.
SKU:100413. It is used for measuring viscosity of very viscose liquids. The outer cylinder can be clamped at any desired height and the inner cylinder is graduated in mms and slot is covered by a transparent cover. Complete with scale pans and releasing pin. Viscometer Searle's Pattern Catalog No. 100413.
A viscometer is an instrument used to measure the co-efficient of viscosity of highly viscos liquid or fluid, like Caster Oil or Engine Oil, Glycerine, Honey and Transformer Oil by Searle's Viscometer. The value of the coefficient of viscosity for a liquid such as glycerine may be obtained at any desired height. The outer cylinder can be ...
Description It is used for measuring viscosity of very viscose liquids. The outer cylinder can be clamped at any desired height and the inner cylinder is graduated in mms and slot is covered by a transparent cover. Complete with scale pans and releasing pin. Viscometer Searle's Pattern
It measures viscosity of every viscos liquid. The outer cylinder can be clamped at any desired height and the inner cylinder is graduated in mms and slot is covered by a transparent cover. Complete with scale pans and releasing pins. Signup Newsletter Email address: Follow Us Links About Us Philosophy Become Dealer Credibility Contact Us Infralab Product Range Analytical Clinical & Industrial ...
EMAIL : [email protected] / [email protected] Mobile : 9892256737 / 7021548561 / 8108474704 / 9821198397 Mobile: 7021548561 0 VISCOSITY OF LIQUID (Searle's Pattern) SEARLE'S VISCOMETER
For centuries, Tyumen vied with the nearby city of Tobolsk—once the official capital of Siberia—for the prestige of the region's most important city. Tyumen won in the end, when the Trans ...
LIKE SHARE SUBSCRIBEAim :- To determine the Coefficient of Viscosity of water by Studying its flow through capillary or by Poiseuille's method.Link for D...
THE REQUEST: The parallel connection of e.sybox improves performance in terms of water flow, making the pumping set particularly suitable for apartment complexes. This was the case with Tyumen, where 28 apartments on 7 floors were equipped with a centralised pressurisation system consisting of three e.sybox. The set split the flow rate equally, and all three units work at the same time only ...
Samotlor Field is the largest oil field of Russia and the sixth largest in the world, [ 1] owned and operated by Rosneft. The field is located at Lake Samotlor in Nizhnevartovsk district, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, Tyumen Oblast. It covers 1,752 square kilometres (676 sq mi). [ 2]
The climate of Tyumen ()Tyumen is located in the southern part of Russia on the banks of the river Tura and is the capital of the Tyumen oblast (administrative division).