gender inequality essay tagalog

Acceptance and Attitudes of Filipinos to the Evolving Gender Roles in the Philippines

― paper details ―.

• Micah Angela A. Pedragoza, Mylene C. Prado, April Samuel, and Angelene B. Santos
• Social Studies
• Paper ID: MIJRDV3I30007
• Pages: 89-98
• ISSN: 2583-0406
• Publication Year: 2024

Abstract ―​

Despite ongoing societal pressure to change traditional gender roles, inequality persists, exerting a substantial influence on various aspects of our society, including actions, lifestyles, occupations, and social duties. Gender inequality remains a prevalent issue globally and demands direct attention aimed at challenging and reshaping ingrained gender roles. In the exploration and evaluation of Filipino perceptions and perspectives regarding assigned gender roles in Philippine society, a descriptive correlational design was employed. The study collected data from random residents in Mandaluyong City, with the primary objective of scrutinizing the relationship between respondents' selected demographic profiles and their acceptance and attitudes toward the evolving gender roles in the Philippines. The findings revealed significant correlations between respondents' age, nature of work, and educational attainment with their level of acceptance. Likewise, when examining the association between age and respondents' attitudes toward gender roles, a noteworthy relationship emerged. Additionally, a robust and significant association between acceptance and attitude was identified, highlighting that positive attitudes were linked to a higher acceptance of evolving gender roles. This underscores the complex interplay of factors shaping societal perspectives on gender roles and emphasizes the need for targeted efforts to address and overcome persistent gender inequality.

Keywords ―​

Acceptance, Attitude, Gender Role, Gender Equality.

Cite this Publication ―​

Micah Angela A. Pedragoza, Mylene C. Prado, April Samuel, and Angelene B. Santos (2024), Acceptance and Attitudes of Filipinos to the Evolving Gender Roles in the Philippines. Multidisciplinary International Journal of Research and Development (MIJRD), Volume: 03 Issue: 03, Pages: 89-98. https://www.mijrd.com/papers/v3/i3/MIJRDV3I30007.pdf

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Kailangan natin ng agarang pagkakapantay-pantay ng kasarian. Pinipigilan ng pagkakapantay-pantay ng kasarian ang karahasan laban sa mga kababaihan at kababaihan. Mahalaga ito para sa kaunlaran sa ekonomiya. Ang mga lipunan na pinahahalagahan ang mga kababaihan at kalalakihan bilang pantay ay mas ligtas at mas malusog. Ang pagkakapantay-pantay ng kasarian ay isang karapatang pantao. Lahat ay nakikinabang sa pagkakapantay-pantay ng kasarian.

" life is not a competition between men and women. it is a collaboration."

DAVID ALEJANDRO FEARNHEAD

Ang pagkakapantay-pantay ng kasarian ay nangangahulugan na ang mga kalalakihan at kababaihan ay may pantay-pantay na karapatan at responsibilidad sa lipunang kinabibilangan. Ang pagkakapantay-pantay ng kasarian ay tungkol din sa pakikibahagi ng tungkulin para sa ikauunlad ng lahat. Kung mahahadlangan tayo ng kasarian na makita ang kahinaan at kalakasan ng bawat indibidwal, maari itong maging dahilan ng diskriminasyon sa bawat isa.

Pagrespeto sa nararamdaman ng iba, ang pagsulong ng mga adbokasiya na magpapalawak ng kaalaman sa ibat ibang kasarian para mabigyang ng kaunawaan ang bawat indibidwal at pagyamanin ang pagmamahal sa kapwa sa tulong ng paggalang at pagtanggap ng walang diskriminasyon.

Ang pagkakapantay-pantay ng kasarian ay kapag ang mga tao sa lahat ng kasarian ay may pantay na mga karapatan, responsibilidad at pagkakataon. Ang bawat isa ay apektado ng hindi pagkakapantay-pantay ng kasarian - kababaihan, kalalakihan, trans at kasarian magkakaibang mga tao, bata at pamilya. Nakakaapekto ito sa mga tao sa lahat ng edad at pinagmulan.

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Gender Equality

▲ Ang pagkakapantay-pantay ng mga kasarian(kilala rin bilang gender equity, gender egalitarianism, o sekswal na pagkakapantay-pantay) ay ang layunin ng >pagkakapantay-pantay ng mga kasarian o ng mga seks, na nagmumula sa paniniwala sa kawalan ng katarungan na may iba't ibang anyo ng hindi pagkakapantay-pantay sa kasarian. Ang United Nations Population Fund ay nagpahayag na ang mga kababaihan ay may karapatan sa pagkakapantay-pantay. Ang "gender equity" ay isa sa mga layunin ng United Nations Millennium Project,upang tapusin ang pandaigdigang kahirapan sa 2015; isinasaad sa proyekto, "Ang bawat isang layunin ay direktang may kinalaman sa karapatan ng mga kababaihan, at sa lipunan kung saan ang mga kababaihan ay hindi nabibigyan ng pantay na karapatan na nagdudulot sa tao ng maaaring hindi kailanman pagkamit ng pag-unlad sa isang pangmatagalan na paraan." Kaya, ang pagtataguyod ng pagkakapantay-pantay ng kasarian ay makikita bilang isang motibasyon sa mas higit na kaunlarang pang-ekonomiya. Halimbawa, ang mga bansa sa Arabya na hindi ipinagkakaloob ang pantay na oportunidad sa mga kababaihan ay binigyan ng babala sa isang 2008 United Nations-sponsored na ulat na ang pagkakait ng kapangyarihang ito ay isang kritikal na kadahilanan na pumipigil sa panunumbalik ng mga bansang ito sa unang ranggo ng mga pandaigdigang lider sa komersyo, edukasyon at kultura. Noong 2010, binuksan ng European Union ang European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) sa Vilnius, Lithuania upang itaguyod ang pagkakapantay-pantay ng kasarian at upang labanan ang diskriminasyong sekswal.

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GENDER EQUALITY AND THE UN DEVELOPMENT GOALS, 2018

The article is devoted to the current problem of gender inequality. Particular attention is paid to the achievement equality between men and women and the empowerment rights of women and girls through Sustainable Development Goals 2030 and the Millennium Declaration goals, approved by the UN and endorsed by all countries. It is spoken in detail the most global problems facing women, namely discrimination in politics, labor discrimination and obstacles of its solving. Great attention is paid to the international documents of UN governing the rights of women. These are the Beijing Declaration, the reports of the UN Secretary-General, the Convention on the Prevention of discrimination against women and others.

The gender situation in the Philippines is characterized by sharp contradictions.It graphically showcases samples of women's advancement in politics, academic and professional excellence, and even legislation. But this is contrasted by images of prostituted women, battered wives, economically disadvantaged women and exploited migrant workers. The socio-cultural traditions are clashing with the MTV and cyberspace generation. The long history of colonialism has embedded a patriarchal culture among Filipinos. The conception of women as full-time homemakers, as subordinated to men, violence against them is private, as reserve labor force, and as sexual objects is now being eroded by modern women asserting themselves in many aspects of life. But on the other hand, some are either marginalized, discriminated, or even exploited by the harsh realities of global economy and consumerism. Both the changes and the inertia of traditions are the backdrop of a very active and dynamic women's movement. The Philippines is a main player in the international women's arena and this is anchored on a very vibrant local women's movement. Numerous organizations and NGOs exist for the cause of gender equality and other related women issues. This puts the gender equality issues at the forefront of national discourse and precludes further downslide of women status in the modern Philippine society. Indeed, there are many handles for the changes to happen. These legal and policy gains resulted from the strong voice of women that started even during the anti-dictatorship struggle that culminated with the ascension of Corazon Aquino as the first woman president of the country. The 1987 Constitution states two prominent provisions. The first in the Declaration of Principles Article II Section 14 which asserted that "The State recognizes the role of women in nation-building and shall ensure the fundamental equality before the law of women and men." Additionally, the Article XIII-Labor: Section 14 provided that "The state shall protect working women by providing safe and healthful working conditions taking into account their maternal functions, and such facilities and opportunities that will enhance their welfare and enable them to realize their full potential in the service of the nation". Following from constitutional provisions and the subsequent efforts to broaden the its principles, numerous legislation were enacted that relates to the various aspects of women and gender concerns, The list include: Gender and Development Law (5% of government agencies' budget is for gender concerns) Party-List Law (women as a particular sector for representation in the legislature through party-list elections) Anti-Sexual Harassment Law (defining SH and providing mechanisms) Anti-Rape Law (elevation of rape as crime against person)

University of the Philippines Center for Integrative & Development Studies (UP CIDS), 2022

Filipino women who comprise 49.5 percent of the population in the Philippines may seem better off than most women in Asia in terms of benefiting from gender-fair policies. Yet, the continuing discrimination and various forms of violence they experience, especially by those from marginalized groups, are causes for alarm. Some women experience multiple discrimination due to their contexts such as sexual orientation, gender identity, age, ethnicity, health status, disability, culture, or religion. These women would face the risk of experiencing greater inequalities in terms of access to rights—social, economic, and political—and justice.

Over the last few decades, the impact of the women’s movements within countries and internationally has been central to raising and tackling gender inequality in social development. Arguments have been made that addressing gender equality is imperative for the overall development agenda in terms of economic growth; stability; enhanced productivity and its cumulative effects on other dimensions of well-being, such as education and health, not just women but families (Wold Bank Group, 2015; World Bank, 2011; Giugale, 2011). Despite these arguments, progress and commitment to dealing with gender inequality has been variable and inconsistent because gender discrimination is embedded deep in the culture and structure of social systems. The struggles, strategies and interventions to address gender inequality are in constant negotiation with the underlying structures, socio-cultural contexts and social systems that serve to maintain it, and challenging these aspects often meets with resistance and backlash (Sandler and Rao, 2012). In this ambiguous terrain it is important to understand the extent to which attempts to address gender inequality have been effective in varying contexts and areas of social development, particularly with regard to Millennium development goals (MDG’s) because of its prominence in the international development agenda. To this end, this chapter firstly addresses the complexities involved in measuring gender, as well as the collection and quality of data, as an entry point to the discussion on gender and development, since without measurement we cannot ascertain progress in this area. Second, the chapter utilises some of the core areas of social development to explore the underlying issues that plague progress in the arena of gender equality, through an engagement with some of the MDG’s and to a lesser extent the SDG’s. Finally the chapter briefly engages with the funding and resourcing of gender equality work, since real dedication to development in the field of gender is evidenced by financial and resource commitment. Progress on gender equality to facilitate social development can only be achieved through adequate resourcing and funding. Due to space limitations it is not possible to cover, all social development matters; rather only those development issues that help me illustrate some key points will be extracted and discussed.

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Fast Facts: Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment in the Philippines

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August 1, 2013

Gender equality is well advanced in the Philippines. The country scores well on international gender equality measures and indices, but more is needed to sustain the achievements and to overcome remaining challenges. Despite a favorable policy environment – the Philippines is signatory to international human rights instruments and has successfully enacted policies and laws for the protection and promotion of women’s rights - the implementation of policies appears uneven and slow.

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• Welcome to Oxfam Philippines

The future is equal

Search form, survey: filipinos still believe gender stereotypes on breadwinning, unpaid care work but positive changes seen.

To shed light on the current situation of unpaid care work in Filipino homes, especially among urban millennials in the BPO sector, Oxfam Pilipinas, with the support of Investing in Women, commissioned The Women and Gender Institute (WAGI) of Miriam College to conduct a study on the issue.

The study officially launched Tuesday (March 29) showed that Filipino women are still bearing the brunt of unpaid care work, resulting in many of them juggling full-time work and a “second shift” at home tending to backbreaking household chores and caring for family members.

“Findings from the research, which involved 232 respondents, confirm that traditional gender norms or stereotypes surrounding unpaid care work and breadwinning still persist in this day and age. Women are still pressured to do more household chores and care work even while working full-time. Men are also still expected to be primary breadwinners of households,” said Leah Payud, Oxfam Pilipinas Resilience Portfolio Manager.

Payud added, “Nevertheless, there’s a lot of potential for positive changes to occur among urban millennials. Also, due to the high rate of women employed in BPOs, the industry is a promising area to begin shifting gender norms for the better.”

WAGI and Oxfam Pilipinas, which has supported several surveys and studies on gender rights in the Philippines, conducted the Action Research “Addressing Gender Norms on Unpaid Care, Domestic Work and Breadwinning in the time of COVID-19” as women breadwinners have been experiencing longer hours doing household chores and caring for their families during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Oxfam previously released a household survey showing that men spent more hours doing unpaid care work during the pandemic. However, women still shouldered the bulk of the tasks.

READ RELATED STUDY: Filipino men log more care work hours due to pandemic but bulk of tasks still fall fall on women--survey

Of the 232 respondents of the 2022 action research, all were full-time BPO employees and nearly half were household heads. Majority (78%) are from Metro Manila, 15% are from Metro Cebu and the rest are from other parts of the country. There were a select number of the respondents who were also in focus group discussions.

During the launch of the research, attended by Investing in Women, representatives from the Regional Tripartite Wages and Productivity Board (Region VIII), and Philippine Commission on Women, Oxfam Pilipinas shared the results of WAGI’s action research with professionals within the BPO sector, gender and inclusion advocates, as well as key stakeholders.

Persistent Gender Norms When it Comes to Breadwinning and Unpaid Care Work

Key findings from Oxfam Pilipinas and WAGI’s research indicate that:

• Women still take on much of the responsibilities in the home, such as unpaid care work and household chores.
• Breadwinning is still a responsibility mostly taken up by men but urban millennials believe women can also be breadwinners.
• Women continue to be held against very high standards, especially when seeking to apply for traditionally male roles.
• The traditional gender norm that men are preferable leaders compared to women — because men are seen as decisive, intentional and strong whereas women are seen as tentative, emotional and indecisive — remains pervasive. 
• Workplace discrimination based on one’s sexual orientation and gender identity still happens.
• Balancing work responsibilities with unpaid care and domestic responsibilities has been difficult throughout the pandemic.

Childcare responsibilities chart

Positive Shifts and the Way Towards a More Equitable Future

The research also identified areas for potential positive changes.

“We’ve seen through the study that more women are taking on breadwinner roles. Other family members are also now contributing to unpaid care work to help their parents,” Payud said.

Taking into consideration the issues raised by the respondents, the study suggested the following recommendations:

• Ensure diversity among staff by assessing existing job descriptions and requirements and change them to expand pool of applicants;
• Ensure better representation of women in leadership roles;
• Mainstream unpaid care and domestic work through workplace gender equality programs, including allowing flexible working hours for both men and women employees and extending parental leaves.
• emphasizing the need for men to do their fair share of unpaid care work;
• advocating for national policies that support men in the workplace who do unpaid care work; and
• putting more mechanisms in place that support community care wor k (community kitchens, day care, etc.).
• Institutional support for women breadwinners must take into account men who receive women’s financial support, through campaigns and workshops that guide them on how to be a man in a more gender-equal society.
• The need to design strategies based on the potential positive changes identified in the study, e.g. unpaid care work involves life-sustaining (not gendered) skills.
• Further research on unpaid care work that takes into consideration social class, financial status, and nonbinary and LGBTQIA+ people.

Now that there is preliminary understanding on the perceptions and situations of Filipino urban millennial couples at home, Oxfam believes there is a need for further research and surveys. Factors such as social class or financial status needs to be taken into consideration.

“We also need to make more visible the challenges faced by non-binary and LGBTQIA+ community members,” Payud said.

“Hopefully through our joint work with the government and other organizations, we can raise the awareness about the burden of unpaid care work — how it should be recognized as real work and how those who take on the task should be supported by their families and society,” the Oxfam official said. #

FOR MEDIA INQUIRIES AND COORDINATION:

Kristine Sabillo Guerrero | Senior Officer for Media and Digital Influencing, Oxfam Pilipinas

Email:  [email protected]

Copyright © 2024 Oxfam Philippines. All rights reserved.

Overcoming barriers to women’s work in the Philippines

Helle buchhave, nadia belhaj hassine belghith.

The current status of women in the Philippines is both a cause for optimism and a reason to accelerate efforts for promoting better access to jobs for all women. On several fronts, the Philippines is a best performer when it comes to gender equality in the East Asia and Pacific (EAP) region and even globally. In the latest Global Gender Gap report, the Philippines occupies the 17th place, with 78.4% of its overall gender gap closed to date. This performance is the second best in the EAP region, after New Zealand. A key driver behind the progress has been the Philippine Magna Carta for Women, a landmark law signed nearly 13 years ago seeking to eliminate discrimination against women. 

With the impressive performance in closing key gender gaps, it is therefore striking that women’s labor force participation remains persistently low. At just 49%, the Philippines’ female labor force participation in 2019 was one of the lowest in the EAP region (regional average rate is 59%). In contrast, 76% of Filipino men were in the labor force, creating a massive gender gap. Progress towards closing the gap has been minimal and female labor force participation has remained roughly the same since 1990, with the gap shrinking by a mere 0.3 percentage points since 2015. 

Women’s low labor force participation represents a missed opportunity for economic growth and increased prosperity in the Philippines. An increase of women’s labor supply by a mere 0.5 percentage points per year would increase gross domestic product (GDP) per capita by about 6% by 2040 and almost 10% by 2050.  

In our recent report, Overcoming the Barriers to Women’s Economic Empowerment in the Philippines , we set out to better understand what is holding women back from the labor market and what is hindering the Philippines’ gain from the growth potential associated with women’s economic empowerment. We document that childcare and social norms about gender roles in the household play a critical role in holding back women’s participation in the labor market in the Philippines. The report adds to our research across the EAP region offering evidence on the linkages between constraints to women’s labor force participation and access to childcare services in Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mongolia, Solomon Islands, and Vietnam . 

What are the barriers to women’s labor force participation in the Philippines? We find four main answers:

Skills. Women who work are mostly concentrated in low skill positions (due to economic necessity) or high skill occupations (because of high rates of education). Women in low skill positions work to avoid falling further into poverty, whereas women in high skill occupations tend to select into the labor force with high earnings potential. Although many women work in private establishments or are self-employed, an important share (around 10%) of women are employed without pay in family-owned businesses and as domestic workers, occupations which tend to offer narrower avenues for skills development and career growth. Men on the other hand represent only 4% in these occupations. An important lesson from the COVID-19 lockdown was that more than a third of women (35%) who remained employed were able to work from home as compared to 19% of men. The pandemic has also opened some new working-from-home opportunities with industries such as business process outsourcing and e-commerce . 

Wage gap. Women earn more on average than men, but women in low skill positions earn much less than men. In families with both men and women being low skilled workers, the household income will suffer significantly less if the female engages in unpaid work than if the man does. In low skill positions, the daily wage is over 50% higher for men than for women, whereas in high skill occupations, the daily wage is about 20% higher for women than for men.  

Care responsibilities. The number of children reduces the likelihood of women’s employment. A large proportion of women are held back from productive employment opportunities by their family responsibilities and the concentration of women in high-skill positions declines considerably when they have young children. Having been married and having a young child aged 0 to 2 years old decreases the probability of women’s participation in the labor market by 7-14 percentage points. The presence of domestic help reduces this negative effect, reflecting how economic inequalities reinforce gender disparities.

Norms. Attitudes and beliefs about women’s roles and responsibilities decrease the probability of women’s engagement in the labor market by 14 to 22 percentage points (ISSP Family and Changing Gender Roles Survey and World Values Survey).  According to our 2021 nationally representative survey on women’s work and childcare, 75% of male and 80% of female respondents agree that a man’s job is to earn money and a woman’s job is to take care of the family and home. More than 70% of men and 76% of women believe that the emotional and psychosocial development skills of a preschool child suffers with a mother working outside the home (a belief that stands in contract to global research see for example Devercelli and Beaton-Day 2020). Moreover, willingness to use childcare services is limited, with over 95% of both men and women believing that childcare should be provided by family members.

What can the government do? We discussed policy recommendations at a recent roundtable between the World Bank, the Philippines Commission on Women, National Economic and Development Authority, the Department of Education, and Oxfam Philippines. Key outcomes were that findings highlight the need for policies and programs that increase female labor force participation in the Philippines by i) providing alternatives to childcare in the home; ii) promoting policies supporting flexible work arrangements, including work from home and e-commerce , such as amendment of the Telecommuting Act (Republic Act 11165); and iii) addressing gendered social norms that affect women’s participation in the labor market through media campaigns, behavioral and attitude change interventions that influence opinions about masculinity, gender roles, earlier childhood development, legislation and company policies that equally promotes parents to engage in care responsibilities. 

“We keep gender equality front and center in our work,” according to Ndiame Diop , the World Bank’s Country Director for the Philippines, Malaysia and Thailand. The World Bank is committed to supporting the Philippines, and one of the priorities of the World Bank’s Philippines FY20-24 Country Gender Action Plan is to increase women’s access to paid labor.   

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Sanaysay tungkol sa gender equality​

"Pantay na Karapatan para sa Lahat"

Ang gender equality ay mahalaga sa lipunan. Ito ay hindi lamang tungkol sa pagbibigay ng pantay na karapatan sa mga kababaihan, kundi pati na rin sa lahat ng kasarian . Sa pamamagitan ng pagtanggap at pagpapahalaga sa bawat isa, nabubuo ang isang mas makatarungan at maunlad na lipunan.

Gayunpaman, may mga hamon pa rin tayo sa pagtahak sa landas ng gender equality. Marami pa rin ang nakararanas ng diskriminasyon batay sa kanilang kasarian. Upang malampasan ito, mahalaga ang patuloy na edukasyon at kamalayan sa usaping ito.

Sa pagpapalakas ng mga batas at patakaran, kasama na rin ang pagpapatupad nito, magkakaroon tayo ng mas proteksyon at pagpapahalaga sa bawat indibidwal. Dapat ding magkaroon ng mga programa at proyekto na naglalayong palakasin ang kapangyarihan at kalagayan ng mga sektor na madalas na naaapektuhan ng diskriminasyon.

Ito ay hindi lamang simpleng adhikain. Ito ay isang hamon na dapat nating wakasan para sa higit pang pag-unlad at pagkakaisa sa ating lipunan. Sa pagpapahalaga sa bawat isa, matatamo natin ang isang mas maganda at pantay na kinabukasan para sa lahat.

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How ‘Bakla’ Explains the Struggle for Queer Identity in the Philippines

The tagalog word eludes western concepts of gender and sexuality—and offers a window into lgbtq+ filipinos’ quest for acceptance..

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• Southeast Asia

Pride Month in the Philippines this year was decidedly spirited: Emerging from one of the longest COVID-19 lockdowns in the world, tens of thousands of people flocked to events organized by advocacy groups throughout the country to protest abuses against members of the LGBTQ+ and other marginalized communities, stand up for human rights, exchange ideas, watch speeches and performances, provide mutual support, and revel in one another’s company. “Happy Pride, mga bakla !” (“Happy Pride, queers!”) was a common refrain, charged with a celebratory energy that has not always been present for queer Filipinos.

But despite being home to the first Pride March in Asia and some of the largest pride celebrations in the region since, the Philippines has a long way to go in terms of ensuring the safety and dignity of LGBTQ+ Filipinos, who have few legal protections and are often targets of aggression, even brutality . An anti-discrimination bill has languished in the legislature for around two decades. Police periodically conduct raids , without warrants, of venues frequented by queer people, who are then subjected to verbal abuse, extortion, and unlawful detention.

The Tagalog word bakla might be seen as an index of the struggles that LGBTQ+ Filipinos still deal with. Although it serves as a marker of identity and as a potential means of forging community, the term is also burdened by an oppressive past that shapes its unsettled present.

There have been efforts to reclaim bakla from its pejorative past—resembling, to some degree, efforts to transform “queer” from a slur into a badge of affirmation.

Variously translated as “drag queen,” “gay,” “hermaphrodite,” “homosexual,” “queer,” “third sex,” and “transgender,” bakla shows how in the Philippines, as in many places around the world, gender and sexuality are imagined and lived out in connection with concepts and categories that Western lenses can’t fully account for. Even as LGBTQ+ discourse has taken root in the Philippines, providing queer Filipinos and their peers around the world with a shared language to build solidarity with, it is inevitably inflected by local understandings of personhood. In his landmark study of Philippine gay culture, literary critic J. Neil Garcia notes that the defining characteristic of the bakla has been—and, to a large extent, continues to be—effeminacy rather than the object of the bakla’s sexual desire. Thus, bakla refers more to gender than to sexuality. However, in popular usage, it is liable to encapsulate both. 

Among Filipinos, bakla likely first conjures up the image of a man who wears clothes and makeup meant for women and is predisposed to flamboyant speech and mannerisms. This figure of the effeminate man has long been present in the Philippines. Documents dating back to the 16th century during Spanish colonization allude to people known as, among other things, “ asog ”: men who assumed the appearance and behavior of women to such a degree that an observer would have difficulty distinguishing between an asog and a woman. 

Asog and their ilk throughout the archipelago engaged in what might be most accurately described as gender-crossing. For all practical purposes, they were treated as women, and they married and had sexual relations with men. Like women, asog were well respected in early colonial—and, presumably, pre-colonial—Philippine society. Only women and asog could take on the prestigious role of “ babaylan ,” mediating between the human and the spirit worlds, treating the sick and wounded, and acting as religious and political leaders.

In spite of Filipinos’ subversion, resistance, and hostility, agents of Spanish subjugation endeavored to overhaul Indigenous people’s ways of life. Notably, members of the Catholic clergy branded sexual acts outside of marriage between a man and a woman as sinful and unnatural. Over some 300 years, babaylan lost their spiritual authority to the Catholic Church, women were relegated to the confines of the home or convent, and asog found themselves demeaned by society and ridiculed as bakla.

Some of the definitions for “ bacla ,” an earlier spelling, in an 1860 Tagalog-Castilian dictionary are telling: to beguile or deceive with luster or beauty, to heal with feigned words, and to be frightened of a new thing. In Tagalog writings from the 19th century up to before World War II, bakla signified a passing phase of confusion, cowardice, fear, indecision, or weakness. Although the word is no longer used in these ways, bakla still bristles with a host of negative connotations, especially following its conflation with the (male) homosexual. Following Garcia’s account, this conflation can be traced back to around the turn of the 20th century, when the United States acquired the Philippines from Spain and imposed new modes of thought about gender and sexuality—such as the concept of homosexuality and its pathologization as a disorder. 

A Filipino protester holds up a painted sign at dusk that reads “ Fight 4 Intersectional LGBTQ+ ” during a Pride parade and protest in Manila, Philippines, on June 28. Jes Aznar/Getty Images

Thus, it is not surprising that bakla today is still used as an insult. Former Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte, notorious for his penchant for violence, has denounced several of his critics as bakla, from a rival candidate for president to the chairperson of the Commission on Human Rights to the U.S. ambassador to the Philippines . Duterte has also remarked on a number of occasions that he used to be bakla but “ nagamot ko ang sarili ko ” (“I cured myself”)—giving voice to the conventional belief in the country that being bakla is similar to having a disease.

This stigma manifests in other forms. Consider how the relationship between two celebrities, comedian Vice Ganda and model Ion Perez, has played out in the public eye. Ganda has referred to herself as bakla and nonbinary, with no pronoun preferences. Perez has described himself as a straight man and responded with anger when tagged as bakla. In 2021, to mark their third anniversary as a couple, the two underwent a commitment ceremony in Las Vegas. Regardless of their open expressions of love, Vice and Perez have had to weather persistent rumors that Perez is just bilking his wealthier and more famous partner. It is a common stereotype that the bakla must purchase the affections of a man and will be abandoned once the bakla has been drained of funds or the man has fallen in love with a woman.

There has been a variety of responses to bakla and its adverse history from the people it purports to designate, such as other members of the LGBTQ+ community and their allies, from adaptation to rehabilitation to rejection. These responses are nuanced by factors like socioeconomic status, geographical location, and access to information on developments in such fields as human rights, law, mass media, medicine, psychology, and public health—and how these bear on gender and sexuality.

Bakla is used matter-of-factly as a self-descriptor and between bakla and their friends as a greeting or a term of endearment. Diminutives, such as “ baks ” and “ accla ,” proliferate, as do alternatives like “ badaf ” and “ bading ,” which are seen as less demeaning. The English words “gay” and “queer” are also in use; these must be understood in connection with long-standing inequalities in Philippine society, in that bakla tends to indicate a person of lower class and status, usually caricatured as a swishy beauty parlor worker. (Many bakla pursue careers in the beauty, fashion, or entertainment industries.)

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Transgender women, meanwhile, have sought to endow their existence with greater precision than bakla affords, with a group of advocates coining the term “transpinay”—a portmanteau of “transgender” and “Pinay,” the latter an informal word for “Filipino woman”—in 2008.

Moreover, there have been efforts to reclaim bakla from its pejorative past—resembling, to some degree, efforts to transform “queer” from a slur into a badge of affirmation. In the 1980s, gay and lesbian activists set up a group named BANANA, which stood for Baklang Nagkakaisa Tungo sa Nasyonalismo (“Bakla United Toward Nationalism”), and participated in protests against the government. In the 1990s, an LGBTQ+ student organization based in the state-run University of the Philippines, called UP Babaylan—a homage to the pre-colonial shaman—produced T-shirts for its members that said “ Bakla ako ” (“I’m bakla”) on the front and “ May angal ka ?” (“Any objections?”) on the back.

A watershed moment in the 2000s was the founding of Ang Ladlad, an LGBTQ+ party that sought to influence national politics by fielding candidates to run under the Philippines’ party-list system, designed to facilitate representation of marginalized sectors in Congress. It faced several challenges —including a ban, later overturned, on its participation in the 2010 elections owing to its alleged promotion of immorality—and was ultimately unsuccessful at its bids to win legislative seats, but it helped draw attention to LGBTQ+ issues and suggest the prospect of the “pink vote”: that is, LGBTQ+ people as a key voting bloc, though its power is yet to be demonstrated. One of the more interesting vote-gathering tactics of Ang Ladlad was to visit neighborhood beauty parlors and engage with the bakla employed there.

Various LGBTQ+ groups continue to play on bakla in their slogans and taglines as they stand up for their rights. The coalition Bahaghari often uses “ Makibeki, wag mashokot !” as a rallying cry. “ Makibeki ” combines “ makibaka ” (“contend with us”) and “ beki ” (another diminutive of bakla) while “‘ wag mashokot ” means “have no fear” in gay lingo. The organizers of the Metro Manila Pride Parade also used makibeki as part of this year’s march theme: “ Atin Ang Kulayaan! Makibeki Ngayon, Atin Ang Panahon .” A rough translation would be, “The colors of freedom are ours! Fellow queers, let us fight together. It is our time.” 

These, it must be emphasized, are not merely linguistic maneuvers. Rather, they represent individual and collective efforts from people who have long been disdained for being different, for defying the norm, to make themselves felt and heard, specify their experiences, and inaugurate modes of living and loving together. Even as the use of bakla remains contentious, LGBTQ+ Filipinos sustain their attempts to negotiate with its difficult history and pave the way toward a prismatic future where they will be embraced with full acceptance by their families and communities.

Jaime Oscar M. Salazar is a writer who lives in Pasig, Philippines.

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143 Unique Gender Inequality Essay Titles & Examples

Here, you will find 85 thought-provoking topics relating to gender, equality, and discrimination. Browse through our list to find inspiration for your paper – and don’t forget to read the gender inequality essay samples written by other students.

👩 Top 10 Gender Equality Title Ideas

🏆 best gender bias essay topics, 💡 interesting topics to write about gender inequality, 📌 simple & easy gender inequality essay titles, 👍 good gender equality research title ideas, ❓ gender inequality research questions.

• Globalization, gender, and development.
• The Pink Tax.
• Women and unpaid labor.
• Gender stereotypes in media.
• Emma Watson’s speech on gender equality.
• A critique of HeForShe campaign.
• Education for girls in Ghana.
• The suffrage movement.
• Crimes against girls and women.
• Female empowerment in STEM fields.
• Gender Inequality in the Story of Ama Aidoo “In the Cutting of a Drink” The story of Ama Aidoo In the Cutting of a Drink tells about gender inequality, which is expressed in the clash between the typical values of rural residents and the values of people living in […]
• Gender Inequality in Workplace Gender is the main reason for inequalities in the workplace; this is because nowadays there is a steady increase in the number of women in workplaces in the world.
• Gender Inequality and Female Leaders in the Hospitality Industry The current literature regarding the challenges and issues facing women in leadership positions in the hospitality industry in France is inadequate.
• Gender Inequality as a Global Issue This essay will examine some of the causes that affect the gap in the treatment of men and women, and its ramifications, particularly regarding developing countries.
• Gender Inequality: The Role of Media The media plays a major role in gender socialization because of the ways it chooses to portray women. Shows such as Beauty and the Beast, Cinderella, and Snow White are famous because they usher children […]
• Sociological perspectives of Gender Inequality The events taking place in the modern world and the occurrence of the feminist movements during the past few decades can be used to offer a deeper understanding on the subject of gender inequality and […]
• Social, Cultural and Gender Inequality From a Global Perspective It is the duty of the tutor to craft a lecture-room environment that serves to enhance meaningful discussions concerning gender. This is due to the fact that students learn best in various ways.
• Gender Inequality: On the Influence of Culture and Religion Therefore, to understand more about the topic, it is essential to study the issues from various perspectives and find the connection of the discourse to other gender-related problems and theories.
• Gender Inequality as a Global Societal Problem For eliminating the gender wage gap, nationwide legislation shows to increase the hiring and promotion of women in the workplace. Unfortunately, there is a gap in scholarly research in regards to reflecting the success of […]
• Gender Inequality and the Glass Ceiling The significant societal barriers that keep women from achieving the highest levels of their careers include, but are not limited to, organizational barriers, societal barriers, and Personal barriers.
• Gender Inequality in Afghanistan Thirdly, there is social gender inequality, which is demonstrated by women being the victims of domestic violence and sexual assault, inequalities in education attainment, lack of freedom to marry and divorce, and unequal access to […]
• Gender Inequality in the Field of Working Wright and Yaeger state that it is the deep intersection of the life and work fields in the current working paradigm that creates daily and long-term problems, limits the available time for male and female […]
• Gender Inequality in Social Media Research shows that teenagers from the age of thirteen use social media to discuss the physical appearances of girls and exchange images with sexual content.
• Femicide in Mexico and the Problem of Gender Inequality Femicide remains one of the most devastating issues in Mexico, and it is vital to address the gender oppression and inequality that women face.
• Women’s Rights and Gender Inequality in Saudi Arabia Indeed, it is crucial to understand the importance of women’s rights, see the connections between the past, the present, the local, and the global, and realize how political and media discourse represents the social issue […]
• The Issue of Gender Inequality Reflection Unfortunately, in the opinion of many, inequality in their treatment is even more pronounced, forming a third group from such persons in addition to binary people and positioning them at the end of the list.
• Gender Inequality in Family Business One of the problems that every woman faces in a family business is that of succession. In the model of Royal Families, the right to lead the business belongs to the oldest son.
• Gender Inequality in Mass Media However, as a part of society, media organizations are influenced by the same social aspects and biased conclusions as the rest of the community. As a result, the owners and managers of media are mainly […]
• Gender Inequality in American Stories and Plays There are disputes about the sexual desire of men and women and how it is applied, and the use of physical strength of men on women.
• Gender Inequality and Female Empowerment Promotion Therefore, it is crucial to continue celebrating women’s accomplishments and encourage a positive change within the current perception of women as a social and biological class.
• Gender Inequality in Interdisciplinary Lenses Both sociologists and legal experts concur that a gender bias ingrained in society is the primary factor contributing to the issue of women in the workforce.
• Gender Inequality at Work in Developed Countries In France, the Netherlands, Spain, and Great Britain, men are disadvantaged throughout the employment process for professions where women predominate. These are the conclusions of a study conducted by the University of Amsterdam, the University […]
• Gender Inequality and Its Causes Analysis It is evident that the difference is so insignificant to the point where some women can be athletically stronger than men, and there is a vast difference in strength among men themselves.
• Human Objectification as a Tool of Gender Inequality Objectification and culture of suppressed emotions of the male gender lead to the further sexual objectification of the females resulting in unequal social positions.
• Gender Inequality in the Video Games Industry The portrayal of males and females in video games is a subject of study in gender studies and is discussed in the context of sexism in the industry.
• The Issue of Gender Inequality After Covid-19 To date, the role of women in society has increased many times over, both in the economic, social, and political spheres of public life.
• Gender Inequality in the Construction Field It is important that the main actors in the sector understand that gender equality can help reduce the issue of shortage of skill that exists in that field.
• Social Enterprises and Gender Inequality in Dubai In the context of UAE demographics, the population of Dubai has been rightfully considered the most diverse in terms of age, income, and socio-ethnic background, as this city is a conglomerate for tourists, business visitors, […]
• Gender Inequality in Relation to the Military Service In his article, Soutik Biswas refers to the intention of India’s Supreme Court to influence the government and give women commanding roles in the army.
• Combating Gender Inequality It is thanks to this approach that humanity will be able to successfully cope with the problem of gender inequality, sexism, and discrimination.
• The Relationship Between Gender Inequality and Women’s Economic Independence In a scenario where the wife is employed, either of the parents has the means of supporting themselves as well as other dependents, and this is the most remarkable benefit of emancipation.
• Gender Inequality and Its Implications on American Society It is not just the fight for the women’s rights, elimination of the gender pay gap or the harassment phenomenon. The voices of those who disagree with the fact that the resolution of one case […]
• Women From the Downtown Eastside: Gender Inequality One of the main questions that bother many people around the whole world is the identification of the conditions under which the citizens of the Downtown Eastside disappeared.
• Issues Surrounding Gender Inequality in the Workplace The main objective of the constructionist point of view is that it is aimed at uncovering how the individuals and the groups tend to participate in the creation of their perceptions of gender and women […]
• Public Policy Analysis on Gender Inequality in Education in South Sudan The major challenges related to the development of the educational system are the ongoing violent attacks and natural disasters. The General Education Strategic Plan, 2017-2022 is the government’s response to the most burning issues in […]
• Gender Inequality, Violence Against Women, and Fear in The Sopranos Thus, the major research question will be “Does The Sopranos endorse or criticize VaW through the frequent depiction of the scenes of cruelty?” The hypothesis of the research paper will be “The portrayal of VaW […]
• Race & Gender Inequality and Economic Empowerment This means that the study will analyze the problem of race and gender inequality and examine how it is related to poverty.
• Gender Inequality: “Caliban and the Witch” by Federici Federici shows the fall of female ability for autonomy and the rise of patriarchal societies as a result of an emerging emphasis on global trade and the perceived notion that the wealth of the country […]
• Gender Inequality Index 2013 in the Gulf Countries However, the ratio of women in the parliament is noticeably lower, and that explains why the GII of Kuwait is slightly higher than the one of the UEA.
• Gender Inequality: Reginald Murphy College To establish the accuracy of the allegations raised as a group, the factors to ensuring the retrieval of the correct information about the issue in question are the involvement of all members of the administration […]
• Gender Inequality and Its Historical Origin Seeing that the effects of the two factors are reciprocal, it can be assumed that, though both have had a tangible impact on the contemporary representation of women in the society, traditions have a significantly […]
• Women in the Workplace: Gender Inequality I examine the idea of work-and-life balance that is proposed as a solution to the problem of having a family and career at the same time and point out the fact that it is typically […]
• Bill Myers’ Leadership and Gender Inequality In this case, the bartenders, wait staff and the busboys all possess the required skills and knowledge for the job, and thus ought to be treated equally.
• Gender Inequality in the Labor Force The aim of this article is to assess the assertion that gender inequality exists in the labor force. The table below shows global adult employment-to-population by gender for 1998 and 2008.
• Gender Inequality and Socio-Economic Development Gender inequality in the US determines who is to be in the kitchen and who is to sit in the White House.
• How Gender Inequality Persists in the Modern World? According Ridgeway, it may not be correct per se to say that its only women who are aggrieved by the gender imbalance but majority of the cases that depict gender inequalities involve women on the […]
• Gender inequality in Algeria The fact that women helped to build back the ruins of society and the heroism they showed in the war efforts, was forgotten by their husbands and the government.
• Gender inequality in Canada According to, although it is certain that men and women have actual differences particularly physically, most of the social indifference perception are not because of the biological connotation but because of the over time cultural […]
• Gender Inequality in the US Of more importance in the enhancement of gender inequality is the role of the media. The natural constrains described above and the multiplier effects from the historical insubordination of women still play to men’s favor […]
• Observations on the Gender Inequality This is the best way to preserve the stability and order in a gendered society, although the young woman in the street cannot accept this order of things.
• The Effects of International Trade on Gender Inequality: Women Carpet Weavers of Iran
• The Prevailing Gender Inequality in USA
• Perspectives On Gender Inequality And The Barrier Of Culture On Education
• Race, Ethnicity and Gender Inequality in the Rwanda Genocide
• The Scarcity Of Water And Its Effect On Gender Inequality
• Unequal Division Of Economic Growth And Gender Inequality
• The Measurement of Multidimensional Gender Inequality
• The Growing Issue of Gender Inequality in the Workplace
• Understanding Gender Inequality in Employment and Retirement
• The Violation of Women and the Practice of Gender Inequality Through Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
• The Different Elements That Affect Gender Inequality in Society
• How Gender Inequality Is Defined As The Unequal Treatment
• The Controversial Issue of Gender Inequality in the Twentieth Century
• The Correlation between Poverty and Gender Inequality
• The Problem of Gender Inequality in the United States and Its Negative Impact on American Society
• National Culture, Gender Inequality and Women’s Success in Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
• The Institutional Basis of Gender Inequality: The Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)
• The Issue of Gender Stereotypes and Its Contribution to Gender Inequality in the Second Presidential Debate
• Women´s Right Movement: Gender Inequality
• International Relations: Gender Inequality Issues
• Problems of Gender Inequality for Women in India and Other
• The Role of Women Discrimination and Gender Inequality in Development: The Cross-Section Analysis by Different Income Groups
• The Effect of Gender Inequality on Economic Development: Case of African Countries
• The Role of Historical Resource Constraints in Modern Gender Inequality: A Cross-Country Analysis
• The Influence of Gender Budgeting in Indian States on Gender Inequality and Fiscal Spending
• Identity, Society, and Gender Inequality of Women in North West India
• How Debates of Gender Inequality and Gender Roles are Conflicted With Family Structures
• The Features of the Problem of Gender Inequality in the World
• Untapped Potential in the Study of Negotiation and Gender Inequality in Organizations
• The Impact of the Sectoral Allocation of Foreign aid on Gender Inequality
• The Impact Of Gender Inequality On Employee Satisfaction
• The Issue of Gender Inequality Between the North and South in the United States
• The Problem of Gender Inequality in South Asia and Its Effects on Girls and Women in Society
• Whether Patriarchy Is The Leading Cause Of Gender Inequality
• The Issues of Gender Inequality in the Book a Woman on the Edge
• Women Deserve For A Girl : A Real Issue Of Gender Inequality
• The Main Causes And Consequences Of Gender Inequality
• The Experience of Gender Inequality in The Awakening, a Novel by Kate Chopin
• The Issues of Gender Inequality in the Political Landscape Despite the Legal and Theoretical Attempts to Overcome the Gender Gap
• Measuring Key Disparities in Human Development: The Gender Inequality Index
• The Relationship of the Cultural and Historical Specificity of Gender Inequality in Mitchell’s Not Enough of the Past
• Stange Journeys and Gender Inequality in Pullman and Dangarembga
• Help or Hindrance? Religion’s Impact on Gender Inequality in Attitudes and Outcomes
• Should Women Continue Fighting Against Gender Inequality
• Women ‘s Gender Inequality By Chinua Achebe ‘s Things Fall Apart
• Legislation and Labour Market Gender Inequality: An Analysis of OECD Countries
• What Are the Types of Gender Inequality?
• Does Gender Inequality Hinder Development and Economic Growth?
• What Does Gender Inequality Mean?
• Does Trade Liberalization Help to Reduce Gender Inequality?
• What are the main issues of gender inequality?
• How Has Gender Inequality Impacted Contemporary Catholicism?
• What Determines Gender Inequality in Household Food Security in Kenya?
• Who Is Affected by Gender Inequality?
• What Causes Gender Inequality?
• Where Is Gender Inequality Most Common?
• What Are the Effects of Gender Equality?
• How Can We Stop Gender Inequality?
• What Is an Example of Gender Equality?
• Does Gender Inequality Still Exist Today?
• What Is the Impact of Gender Inequality in the Society?
• When Did Gender Inequality Become an Issue?
• What Are the Three Main Areas of Gender Inequality in the World?
• How Does Gender Inequality Affect Development?
• What Is the Difference Between Gender Equity, Gender Equality, and Women’s Empowerment?
• Why Is Gender Equality Important?
• Is Gender Equality a Concern for Men?
• What Are the Manifestations of Gender Inequality in the Modern Society?
• Is Gender Inequality Still a Pending and Pressing Issue in the Modern World?
• What Are the Causes and Effects of Gender Inequality in the European Society?
• Can Gender Inequality Issues Be a Boost for Women’s Progress, Development, and Improvement in the Workplace?
• What Are the Future Consequences and Outcomes of the Present-Day Gender Inequality?
• Where Does Gender Inequality Step From?
• Is It Possible at All to Achieve Gender Equality?
• What Is Gender Blindness and How Does It Impact the Overall Concept of Gender Inequality?
• Is Education a Solution to Solve Inequality Between the Sexes?
• Gender Roles Paper Topics
• Demography Paper Topics
• Family Relationships Research Ideas
• Women’s Rights Titles
• Personal Identity Paper Topics
• Women’s Role Essay Topics
• Workplace Discrimination Research Topics
• Feminism Questions
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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