how to use images in a research paper

• Ask a Librarian

Locating and Using Images for Presentations and Coursework

• Free & Open Source Images
• How to Cite Images
• Alt Text Image Descriptions

Copyright Resources

• Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States from Cornell University Library
• Copyright Overview from Purdue University
• U.S. Copyright Office
• Fair Use Evaluator
• Visual Resources Association's Statement of Fair Use of Images for Teaching, Research, and Study
• Creative Commons Licenses

Attribution

Again, the majority of images you find are under copyright and cannot be used without permission from the creator. There are exceptions with Fair Use, but this Libguide is intended to help you locate images you can use with attribution (and in some case, the images are free to use without attribution when stated, such as with stock images from pixabay). ***Please read about public domain . These images aren't under copyright, but it's still good practice to include attribution if the information is available. Attribution : the act of attributing something, especially the ascribing of a work (as of literature or art) to a particular author or artist. When you have given proper attribution, it means you have given the information necessary for people to know who the creator of the work is.

Citation General Guidelines

Include as much of the information below when citing images in a paper and formal presentations. Apply the appropriate citation style (see below for APA, MLA examples).

• Image creator's name (artist, photographer, etc.)
• Title of the image
• Date the image (or work represented by the image) was created
• Date the image was posted online
• Date of access (the date you accessed the online image)
• Institution (gallery, museum) where the image is located/owned (if applicable)
• Website and/or Database name

Citing Images in MLA, APA, Chicago, and IEEE

• Directions for citing in MLA, APA, and Chicago MLA: Citing images in-text, incorporating images into the text of your paper, works cited APA 6th ed.: Citing images in-text and reference list Chicago 17th ed.: Citing images footnotes and endnotes and bibliography from Simon Fraser University
• How to Cite Images Using IEEE from the SAIT Reg Erhardt Library
• Image, Photograph, or Related Artwork (IEEE) from the Rochester Institute of Technology Library

Citing Images in Your PPT

Currently, citing images in PPT is a bit of the Wild West. If details aren't provided by an instructor, there are a number of ways to cite. What's most important is that if the image is not a free stock image, you give credit to the author for the work. Here are some options:

1. Some sites, such as Creative Commons and Wikimedia, include the citation information with the image. Use that citation when available. Copy the citation and add under the image. For example, an image of a lake from Creative Commons has this citation next to it:  "lake"  by  barnyz  is licensed under  CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 .

2. Include a marker, such as Image 1. or Figure 1., and in the reference section, include full citation information with the corresponding number

3. Include a complete citation (whatever the required format, such as APA) below the image

4. Below the image, include the link to the online image location

5. Hyperlink the title of the image with the online image location

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• Last Edited: Jun 8, 2023 3:28 PM
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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Using Images and Non-Textual Materials in Presentations, Papers, Theses, and Dissertations

• Documenting and Citing Images
• Finding Images - Select Sources

Documenting and Citing Images/Photographs and Their Sources

Please note that this is advice on best practices and considerations in documenting and citing images and non-print materials. It does not represent legal advice on obtaining permissions.

Generally, images copied from other sources should not be used without permissions in publications or for commercial purposes. Many American academic institutions require graduate students to archive their finished and approved theses/dissertations in institutional electronic repositories and/or institutional libraries and repositories, and/or to post them on Proquest's theses database. Unpublished theses and dissertations are a form of scholarly dissemination. Someone else's images, like someone else's ideas, words or music, should be used with critical commentary, and need to be identified and cited. If a thesis/dissertation is revised for publication,  waivers or permissions from the copyright holder(s) of the images and non-textual materials must be obtained. Best practices also apply to materials found on the internet and on social media, and, properly speaking, require identification, citation, and clearance of permissions, as relevant.

Use the following elements when identifying and citing an image, depending on the information you have available . It is your responsibility to do due diligence and document as much as possible about the image you are using:

• Artist's/creator's name, if relevant;
• Title of the work/image, if known, or description;
• Ownership information (such as a person, estate, museum, library collection) and source of image;
• Material, if known, particularly for art works;
• Dimensions of the work, if known.

The Chicago Manual of Style online can be searched for norms on appropriate ways to caption illustrations, capitalize titles of visual works, or cite print materials that contain images.

Including images/photographs in a bibliography:

Best practice is to not include images within a bibliography of works cited. It is common, instead, to create a separate list of images (or figures) and their source, such as photographer (even if it's you) or collection. It may be useful to also include location, e.g., museum, geographic reference, address, etc.

Examples of Documenting Images

The image below is scanned from a published book. It can be used in a critical context within a presentation, classroom session, or  paper/thesis, as follows:

[ Figure 1. This photograph from 1990 shows the Monument against Fascism designed by Jochen Gerz and Esther Shalev-Gerz, Hamburg, 1986-1993. Image from James Young, ed.,  Art of Memory: Holocaust Memorials in History (New York: Prestel, 1994), 70]

If you need to use this image in a published work, you will have to seek permission. For example, the book from which this image was scanned should have a section on photo credits which would help you identify the person/archive holding this image.

The image below was found through Google Images and downloaded from the internet. It can be used in a critical context within a presentation,  classroom session, or paper/thesis, as follows:

[Figure 2. This image shows the interior of Bibliotheca Alexandrina designed by the Norwegian architecture firm Snøhetta in 2001. Image downloaded from https://mgkhs.com/gallery/alexandria in March 2016.]

If you want to use this image in a published work, you will have to do your best to track down its source to request permission to use. The web site or social media site where you found the image may not be an appropriate source, since it is common for people to repost images without attribution. Just because "everyone does it" does not mean that you should be using such materials without attribution or documentation. In this specific example, you may need to write to the photographer or to the architecture firm. If you have done due diligence and were unable to find the source, or have not received a response, you may be able to use an image found on the internet with appropriate documentation in a publication.

The image below was downloaded from a digitized historic collection of photographs held by an institutional archive. It can be used in a critical context within a presentation,  classroom session, or paper/thesis, as follows:

[Figure 3. In the 1920s the urban landscape of Los Angeles started to change, as various developers began building multi-family apartment houses in sections previously zoned for single family dwellings. Seen in this photograph by Dick Whittington is the Warrington apartment building, which was completed in 1928, surrounded by older single family structures. Downloaded from the USC Digital Library in February 2016]

I f you plan to use this photograph in a publication, seek permission from the library/institution from whose digital archive you downloaded the image. Contact information is usually found in the record for the image.

The image below was taken by the author. It can be used in a critical context within a presentation, classroom session , paper/thesis, or a publication* as follows:

[Figure 4. Genex Tower, also known as West City Gate, is a residential tower located in New Belgrade. This example of late 20th century brutalist-style architecture was designed in 1977 by Mihajlo Mitrović. Photographed by the author in 2013.]

*Please note, if you re-photographed someone else's photograph or a work of art, or if you re-photographed a published image, you may not be able to publish your photograph without first seeking permission or credit for its content.  If you have done due diligence and were unable to find the source or have not received a response, you may be able to use your image with appropriate documentation.

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• Last Updated: Jan 19, 2023 3:12 PM
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Guide to Using Science Images for Research Papers

One easy way to include science images in your manuscripts is to download and customize them for your figures..

When downloading images from the internet to use in your scientific papers and presentations, you need to be careful that they match the copyright, resolution, and sizing rules that allow them to be used in academic journals. This science image guide provides tips to help you choose the right kinds of files that you can use to create your own impressive designs.

Which image format is best for research papers?

There are two categories of images that can be used for scientific publications: editable and uneditable. Editable images that can be fully customized and scaled without losing resolution are called vector files. Uneditable images don't allow you to adjust the design or color and come in wide range of formats from low to high resolution. Both of these image types can be used in scientific papers as long as you follow the proper copyright and resolution rules. Learn more about these image types and the different uses below.

1. Editable Images

The best kind of science images are editable vector files that allow you to customize the designs to best match the main points of your research. These include image file types such as Scalable Vector Graphics (.svg), Adobe Illustrator (.ai), Affinity Designer (.afdesign), Encapsulated PostScript (.eps), and some files in PowerPoint (.pptx) if they were drawn using PowerPoint shape tools.

Editable Image Tips:

• Editable images are important because some scientific journals, such as Science, require that you provide them with figures that are formatted using editable vector files.
• Be cautious of using images and database tools that only offer limited design customization options such as BioRender. Partially editable images can be difficult to make an illustration that looks professional and seamless with your data and other designs.
• Vector images have customizable sizes, resolution and transparent backgrounds, so you can always scale the image and insert it into any background.
• Make sure you follow the copyright rules associated with your image download. Some vector image databases require attribution and others allow you to use them for any purpose.

How to Find Editable Images

The easiest ways to find editable images is to explore science image databases or use Google search. I recommend using the search terms "drawings", "vector art", or "vector images" paired with the image type keyword.

The example below shows the Google Image search results for "cancer cell drawings" with a variety of different options for downloading different types of science images. You will still need to make sure that the image is available as a vector file type to be fully editable (e.g. SVG, AI, or EPS file types). Most vector images will require some sort of payment or subscription to download the high resolution files and use without copyright issues.

1. Uneditable Images

The second best format is uneditable images. Common uneditable image types are PNG, TIFF, or JPEG formats and these can be incorporated into your scientific figures and presentations as long as they have high enough resolution and have copyright rules that allow you to use them in academic publications. 

Uneditable image tips:

• Check the resolution of downloaded images to make sure they are high enough to use in scientific publications without looking grainy or unclear (see the "How to check image resolution" instructions in the section below). 
• Try to find PNG images with transparent backgrounds to make it easier to incorporate into your scientific figures and posters.
• Be very careful in checking the source of uneditable images and follow all copyright rules associated with the image. Uneditable image are more likely to have copyright rules associated with them that do not allow their use in scientific journals.

How to Find High Resolution and Transparent Images

The easiest ways to find high resolution and transparent images is to explore science image databases or use Google search. I recommend using the search terms "transparent background" and using the Google "Tools" feature to limit the search for "Large" images. 

The examples below shows the Google Large Image search results for "plant cell diagram transparent background" that show a variety of different options for downloading high resolution and transparent science images.

What image sizes are best for scientific publication?

Size and resolution are important because images need to be high resolution enough to show sharp shapes and lines when it is used in a printed or digital figure. Below are tips on how to choose the right image sizes and resolutions.

Image Resolution

Resolution is the most important aspect of a downloaded image or scientific figure and affects the sharpness of the details. A low-resolution image will have around 72 PPI and high resolution images are at least 300 PPI.

• Most scientific journals require images and figures to be at least 300 PPI/DPI.
• The "PPI" stands for Pixels Per Inch and is used when referring to digital file resolution and "DPI" stands for Dots Per Inch and is used for printing resolution.

How to Check Image Resolution:

• Windows computer: Right-click on the file, select Properties, then Details, and you will see the DPI in the Image section, labeled Horizontal Resolution and Vertical Resolution. 
• Mac computer: Open the image in Preview and select Tools, then Adjust Size, and find the label Resolution.

The size requirements will depend on how you plan to use the image. Most scientific journals use a maximum figure width of 180mm, so if you only plan to use images in scientific publications, then you only need them large enough to look sharp within a 180 mm wide figure (~600 pixels wide).

If you plan to use the image in presentation or posters slides, you will need to have much larger images to not have resolution issues when shown on a big screen that is 1280 x 720 pixels or printed on a poster that is approximately 48 x 36 inches.

How Can I Find Copyright-Free Images?

Copyright laws ensure that an image is only used in a way that is approved by the image creator. The best way to ensure that you download images with copyright rules that allow you to use them for academic journal submissions is to read the fine print on the image source. The summary below describes how to find images that are allowed for use in scientific papers.

Copyright License Review

Anyone who creates their own original artwork has the right to be acknowledged as the creator of that image. They automatically own the copyright for the image, which means that legally, they have the right to decide where and how that image can be used. In order to be able to use images in scientific papers, you will need to know what kind of copyright license is being used, which you can usually find by looking for the original source of the image or by reading the fine print of the image database.

Types of copyright licenses for scientific use:

• Public Domain  - Images generally become public domain after 70 years after the creator's death. If the copyright is not renewed on the creator's behalf, the image can become part of the ‘public domain’, and the copyright no longer applies.
• Creative Commons 4  - You can adapt and share the image in anyway you like, but this license requires attribution, so you will need to include the original creator in the acknowledgements of the research paper, posters, and acknowledged on your presentation slides.
• Stock Images  - Image databases that allow you to license the designs. Make sure to read the fine print on how you are allowed to use the image (e.g. personal and commercial uses). 

How to Find Copyright-Free Images:

Look for image databases that have copyright licenses that allow you to use the images "For personal, academic, and commercial projects and to modify it" such as: 

• FreePik  
• Simplified Science
• Wikimedia Commons

NOTE: Some copyright-free image databases may still require that you attribute the illustration to the original author in your scientific publication. Read the fine print to make sure you are using the image correctly!

• Here is an example of Simplified Science Usage Rules for comparison to other image databases.

How to Use Downloaded Images in Publications?

After downloading images, the next step is to format them into your scientific designs. Two of the most common software tools that scientists use for figure formatting are Adobe Illustrator and PowerPoint. Below is a link to free online courses that show you how to use the downloaded images in your scientific publications and graphical abstracts.

Create professional science figures with illustration services or use the online courses and templates to quickly learn how to make your own designs.

Interested in free design templates and training.

Explore scientific illustration templates and courses by creating a Simplified Science Publishing Log In. Whether you are new to data visualization design or have some experience, these resources will improve your ability to use both basic and advanced design tools.

Interested in reading more articles on scientific design? Learn more below:

Scientific Presentation Guide: How to Create an Engaging Research Talk

Data Storytelling Techniques: How to Tell a Great Data Story in 4 Steps

Best Science PowerPoint Templates and Slide Design Examples

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Using Images in Research and Presentations

• Finding Images
• Using Images

Why Do I Need to Cite Images?

Creative commons attribution.

Citing all your sources of information and creative work you use is part of academic integrity. You are giving credit where credit is due.

In academic work, images should be followed by and attribution or in text citation whether that be in a note or caption immediately following the image or at the bottom of a presentation slide. A full citation should be found in your Works Cited or Reference List, though you might separate them out into an Image Credit List, depending on the style of citation you are using.

The 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association expended their explanations and examples of how to cite multimedia sources including multimedia materials. Examples of reference are found in Chapter 10 of the Manual and the following sections focus on multimedia sources

• 10.12 Audiovisual works (films, streaming videos, television series, etc.)
• 10.13 Audio works (music, podcast, radio broadcast, etc.)
• 10.14 Visual works (fine art, clip art, infographics, photographs, maps, etc.)
• 10.15 Social media (including Instagram posts).

A related section of the Manual is Chapter 7 which deals with the presentation of tables and figures, so the Manual shows you how images should be incorporated into your work in addition to how they should be cited; see Sample Figure 7.3 for how to include an attribution in the figure note.

Here is an example of how the following photograph (found through Pixabay) should be cited using the APA style.

stokpic. (2015, February 10). Blonde Girl Taking Photo [Photograph]. Pixabay. https://pixabay.com/photos/blonde-girl-taking-photo-629726/

Remember, the library has a copy of the Manual at the Reference Desk if you need to use it.

The 9th edition of the MLA Handbook Appendix 2 has several examples of works-cited-list entries and the examples of citing fine art and still images can be found on pages 331 - 333. The online  MLA Style Center  also has examples of image citations.

• Citations by Format | MLA Style Center Are you using any other types of information sources in your project? Find more examples of MLA citation styles here.

Here is an example of how the following photograph (found through Pixabay) should be cited using the MLA style.

stokpic. Blonde Girl Taking Photo. 10 February 2015.  Pixabay . pixabay.com/photos/blonde-girl-taking-photo-629726/

Remember, the library has a copy of the Handbook at the Reference Desk if you need to use it.

• Use & Remix - Creative Commons The "Use & remix" section of the Creative Commons website details how to properly attribute content licensed under a CC license. Attribution is a condition of all CC licenses. more info... less info... Creative Commons is a nonprofit organization dedicated to building a globally-accessible public commons of knowledge and culture. They provide Creative Commons licenses and public domain tools that give every person and organization in the world a free, simple, and standardized way to grant copyright permissions for creative and academic works; ensure proper attribution; and allow others to copy, distribute, and make use of those works.
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Research Voyage

Research Tips and Infromation

The Power of Images in Research Papers: How They Enhance the Quality of Your Paper?

Introduction

Why are images(pictures) important in research papers, the benefits of using images(pictures) in research papers, using high-resolution images in a research paper, citing the source of the images used in a research paper, using relevant images in a research paper, optimizing the size and placement of images in a research paper, checking the copyright status of images before using them, saving images in a lossless format, compressing images before adding them to a research paper, challenges and limitations of using images in research paper, cameras suitable for taking research images, how can i label my images in research paper inside image itself, popular image labelling tools with their key features:, whether image caption should contain keywords listed in the research paper, whether you need permission to include maps in your research paper .

Research papers must include images and figures because they significantly increase the work’s impact and readability. Images are a useful tool for researchers and authors since, in today’s world, visual information is frequently simpler to absorb and retain than text-only information. Images in research papers can do more than just serve as illustrations; they can also help to clarify difficult concepts, offer further details, and even enhance the text in a way that makes the article more interesting and memorable.

In this post, we’ll examine the use of photographs in research papers and the reasons they’re crucial to academic and scientific writing. We will also go over the many kinds of photos that can be utilised in research papers, their advantages, and the best ways to use them. If you want to write engaging and effective research papers, whether you’re a researcher, student, or scientific enthusiast, you must grasp the significance of images in research papers.

Images are a useful tool for researchers and authors in the scientific community because of their capacity to enthral and instruct. Research papers can benefit from the addition of figures like photographs, drawings, and block diagrams, whether they are taken with a camera or made using software like Canva. To make sure that images have the desired effect, it is crucial to use them efficiently. The advantages of include photos in research papers, the optimal usage methods, as well as the difficulties and restrictions that must be taken into account, will all be covered in this article.

From relevance and clarity to captioning and accessibility, we will examine the key factors that can impact the use and impact of images in research papers. Whether you are a seasoned researcher or just starting out, this discussion will provide valuable insights and guidance for using images effectively in your scientific work.

This article focuses only about the images which are captured from the cameras and block diagrams drawn by the researchers to show the methodology or any other aspect related to research. I have written separate articles on charts/graphs and Tables which you can refer below for further details.

• Maximizing the Impact of Your Research Paper with Graphs and Charts
• Best Practices for Designing and Formatting Tables in Research Papers

Images in research papers serve a variety of functions, from promoting reading and engagement to strengthening comprehension and memory. Many times, using graphics can make it easier for readers to understand complicated ideas and information. For instance, pictures can give a clear visual representation of the research topic, while sketches and block diagrams can help explain intricate systems and processes.

Images can enhance the paper’s readability and comprehension in addition to acting as a textual supplement. A picture can give the research a context in the real world, while a diagram can aid to demonstrate a topic or process that is mentioned in the text. When used well, photographs can create a seamless transition between written and visual data, strengthening the study paper’s impact and retention.

Cross-disciplinary communication can also be facilitated by the use of images in research articles. A block diagram, for instance, can be used to explain a complicated concept to a non-expert audience, while a photograph can draw in readers from many cultural backgrounds. Images can contribute to the accessibility and impact of research articles by bridging the gap between text and visual information.

In conclusion, graphics play a variety of roles in research papers and can significantly improve the work by bringing complicated concepts into focus, enhancing the language, and adding to its readability and retention. Images are a useful tool for researchers and authors who want to produce work that is impactful and accessible, whether they are used to depict study subjects, clarify procedures, or provide context.

The use of images in research papers can bring many benefits, making them valuable tools for researchers and authors. Some of the key benefits include:

• Enhancing readability and engagement: Images can make research papers more visually appealing and engaging, encouraging readers to stay focused and interested in the work. They can also help to break up text-heavy sections and make the paper more visually appealing, which can improve the overall reading experience.
• Improving understanding and retention of information: Research has shown that people tend to remember information better when it is presented in a visual format. By incorporating images into research papers, authors can help readers to better understand and retain information, which can increase the impact of the work.
• Facilitating cross-disciplinary communication: Images can help to bridge the gap between text and visual information, making research papers more accessible to a wider audience. This can be especially useful when communicating complex ideas to non-experts or individuals from different cultural backgrounds.
• Making the paper stand out and be more memorable: Research papers with high-quality, relevant, and clear images are more likely to be remembered and have a greater impact. By using images effectively, authors can make their work stand out from the crowd and increase its impact.

Best Practices to Follow When Adding Pictures to a Research Paper

There are a few best practices to follow when adding pictures to a research paper:

• Use high-resolution images: Make sure the images you use are of high quality and resolution. This will ensure that they look clear and crisp when printed or viewed on a screen.
• Cite the source of the image: Always include a caption for the image and cite the source. This is important for academic integrity and to give credit to the original creator of the image.
• Use relevant images: Choose images that are directly related to the content of the paper and will help to enhance the reader’s understanding.
• Optimize the size and placement of the images: Make sure the images are appropriately sized and placed in the document to ensure they do not detract from the text.
• Check copyright: Make sure the image you are using is not copyrighted and that you have permission to use it.
• Save images in a lossless format: To ensure that images maintain their quality, save them in a lossless format, such as TIFF or PNG.
• Compress images: Reduce the file size of the images before adding them to the paper, this will make the paper more manageable.

Sure, when it comes to using high-resolution images in a research paper, there are a few key things to keep in mind:

• Resolution refers to the number of pixels in an image and is typically measured in dots per inch (dpi) or pixels per inch (ppi). The higher the resolution, the more pixels an image contains, and the sharper and more detailed it will appear.
• For printed materials, a resolution of at least 300 dpi is generally recommended. This will ensure that the images look clear and crisp when printed, even at a larger size.
• For images that will be viewed primarily on a screen, a resolution of 72 dpi is typically sufficient. Keep in mind that higher-resolution images will have larger file sizes, which may slow down loading times.
• It’s also important to keep in mind the size of the image when using it in a research paper. Larger images will take up more space and may cause the paper to be larger in size.
• Always check the resolution and size of the image before using it in your paper. If the resolution is too low, the image may appear pixelated or blurry.

In summary, by using high-resolution images, you ensure that they look clear and crisp when printed or viewed on a screen, also the size of the image should be considered to not make the paper too large.

Citing the source of the images used in a research paper is an important aspect of academic integrity. It gives credit to the original creator of the image and allows readers to locate the image themselves if they wish to see it in more detail.

When including an image in a research paper, it is important to include a caption for the image. The caption should include the following information:

• Image number: This is a number or letter that corresponds to the image, typically in the format “Figure 1” or “Image A.”
• Title: A brief title that describes the image.
• Source: The source of the image, including the name of the creator, the title of the work, and the date of creation.
• Copyright information: If the image is copyrighted, it is important to include the copyright information along with the source. This includes the name of the copyright holder and the year the image was copyrighted.
• Permission: If you obtained permission to use the image, include the name of the individual or organization that granted permission.

It is also important to include a list of figures or a bibliography at the end of the paper that includes all the images used in the paper with the same information provided in the caption.

Citing the source of the image is not only important for academic integrity, but also it gives credit to the original creator and allows the readers to locate the image if they want to see it in more detail. Additionally, it also demonstrates that you have done the necessary research to support the claims made in the paper.

Including pertinent graphics in a research paper can both improve the reader’s comprehension of the material and make the document more interesting.

When choosing photographs, it’s crucial to pick ones that directly relate to the paper’s subject matter and that will enrich the text. An photograph of that species, for instance, would be pertinent if the paper is on that type of animal, as opposed to an image of an entirely different animal.

Example : Pomegranate Fruit Quality Assessment using Image Processing techniques

It’s crucial to take the context of the photographs into account when inserting them in the document. For the reader to grasp the connection between the image and the text, the images should be positioned close to the words to which they are related.

It’s also a good idea to take the image and text’s formats into account; the text should be readable and the image should be presented in an understandable manner.

In summary, using relevant images in a research paper can greatly enhance the reader’s understanding of the content and make the paper more engaging. It is important to choose images that are directly related to the content of the paper and to place them close to the text that they are related to. The format of the image and the text should also be considered to ensure the reader can easily understand the relationship between the image and the text.

Making sure that photographs in a research paper are the right size and location can ensure that they do not distract from the content and that readers can easily understand them.

It’s crucial to make sure that the photos are proportionately sized to the text when it comes to size. Small images could be challenging to see and interpret, while large images might take up a lot of space and make the paper appear cluttered.

It’s crucial to take the paper’s flow into account when deciding where to position things. The sequence of the images should make sense and correspond to the flow of the text. In order for the reader to grasp the connection between the image and the text, they should also be placed close to the text to which they are related.

In order to avoid obstructing the text’s flow and causing the document to appear cluttered, it’s crucial to take the page layout into account while adding photos.

In conclusion, making sure that photographs in a research paper are the right size and placed properly will assist to guarantee that they do not take away from the text and that the reader can easily understand them. To ensure that the reader can easily understand the relationship between the image and the text, images should be appropriately sized in relation to the text, placed in a logical order that follows the progression of the text, and placed close to the text that they are related to. The format of the image and the text should also be taken into consideration. The page layout should also be taken into account to prevent the graphics from obstructing the text’s flow and from giving the document a cluttered appearance.

Before utilising any photos in your research report, it’s crucial to check their copyright status to make sure you have permission to use them.

While each country has its own copyright regulations, generally speaking, an image is protected by copyright if it was made by someone who also owns the rights to it.

You must request permission from the owner of the copyright to use an image in your research work. Usually, you can do this by getting in touch with the copyright owners personally or using a copyright clearance centre.

Additionally, it’s crucial to keep in mind that some photographs can be subject to Creative Commons licences, which permit the image’s restricted use in exchange for correct acknowledgement. It’s crucial to read and comprehend the terms of the licence before utilising the image because these licences can be found on the website where the image is posted.

In conclusion, it’s crucial to verify the copyright status of photographs before utilising them in a research paper to make sure you have the legal right to do so. If you want to use an image in your research work, you must first get the owner’s permission. You should also read and comprehend any Creative Commons licences that may be applicable before utilising the image.

To guarantee that the photographs retain their quality when utilised in a research article, it is crucial to save them in a lossless format.

When an image is saved and opened, there is no loss of image quality thanks to a lossless format because it does not compress the image’s data. TIFF, PNG, and GIF are popular lossless image formats. Compared to “lossy” formats like JPEG, these formats often have greater file sizes, but they maintain the image’s integrity and guarantee that it will seem just as crisp and detailed when opened as when it was saved.

Contrarily, lossy formats, like JPEG, are intended to minimise the file size of an image but do so at the expense of part of the image’s data, which might degrade the image’s quality. This is inappropriate for research articles because they call for high-quality photographs.

Additionally, it’s crucial to keep in mind that when you save an image in a lossless format, you can modify it more than once without it losing quality. This is crucial since you might need to crop or resize the image for the publication.

In summary, Saving images in a lossless format is important to ensure that the images maintain their quality when used in a research paper. Common lossless image formats include TIFF, PNG and GIF, and it’s also important to note that when you save an image in a lossless format, you can open and edit the image multiple times without losing quality.

Compressing images before adding them to a research paper is important to reduce the file size of the images and make the paper more manageable.

File size can be an issue when working with images in a research paper, as large image files can slow down the loading times of the paper and make it more difficult to share or upload. Compressing images can help to reduce the file size of the images and make the paper more manageable.

There are several ways to compress images:

• Lossless compression : This type of compression reduces the file size of the image without losing any image quality. Common lossless compression formats include PNG and GIF.
• Lossy compression : This type of compression reduces the file size of the image by discarding some of the image data. Common lossy compression formats include JPEG.
• Photoshop : you can use photoshop to save for web, this option will give you more control on how much you want to compress the image and the quality of the image.

It’s important to note that lossy compression can result in a loss of image quality, so it’s best to use lossless compression if possible. Additionally, you should always check the image quality after compressing it to make sure that it’s still suitable for the paper.

In summary, compressing images before adding them to a research paper is important to reduce the file size of the images and make the paper more manageable. There are several ways to compress images, such as lossless compression, lossy compression and using photoshop to save for web, but it’s important to keep in mind that lossy compression can result in a loss of image quality, so it’s best to use lossless compression if possible. Additionally, you should always check the image quality after compressing it to make sure that it’s still suitable for the paper.

Challenges and Limitations of Using Images in Research Papers Despite the many benefits of using images in research papers, there are also challenges and limitations to consider. Some of the key challenges and limitations include:

• Cost : Creating high-quality images can be expensive, especially if specialized software or equipment is required. This can be a challenge for researchers and authors working with limited budgets.
• Technical proficiency : Creating clear and effective images requires technical proficiency, which may not be available to all researchers and authors. This can limit the use of images in research papers and the impact they have.
• Copyright and intellectual property issues : Using images from other sources can raise questions of copyright and intellectual property. It is important to be aware of these issues and ensure that all images used in research papers are properly cited and attributed.
• Space limitations : Research papers often have limited space, which can impact the use and impact of images. This may require authors to carefully consider the number and size of images used in their work.
• Accessibility : Some images may not be accessible to all readers, especially those with visual impairments. This can limit the reach and impact of research papers and should be considered when using images.

In conclusion, while the use of images in research papers can bring many benefits, it is important to be aware of the challenges and limitations associated with their use. Whether related to cost, technical proficiency, intellectual property, space limitations, or accessibility, these factors can impact the use and impact of images in research papers. Careful consideration and planning can help to mitigate these challenges and ensure that images are used effectively to enhance the impact of research papers.

When it comes to taking images for a research paper, the most important factor to consider is the quality of the images. While there are many cameras on the market, not all cameras are equally suitable for taking research-related images. Here are some key components to consider when choosing a camera for research purposes:

• Image Resolution : High image resolution is essential for capturing images that are clear, detailed, and suitable for publication. Look for a camera with at least 12 megapixels, but higher is better.
• Image Sensor : The image sensor is the part of the camera that captures light and converts it into a digital image. The larger the image sensor, the more light it can capture, which can result in better image quality. Look for a camera with a full-frame image sensor.
• Lens Quality : The quality of the lens will greatly impact the sharpness and detail of your images. Look for a camera with high-quality lenses, or consider purchasing additional lenses to meet your specific needs.
• Shooting Modes : Research-related images often require specialized shooting modes, such as macro, time-lapse, or slow-motion. Make sure the camera you choose has the shooting modes you need for your research.
• Image Stabilization : Image stabilization helps to reduce camera shake, which can result in blurry images. If you plan on hand-holding the camera, consider a camera with built-in image stabilization.
• Cost : Research cameras can be expensive, so consider your budget when choosing a camera. Some lower-cost cameras may still meet your needs, so it’s important to research your options.

Labelling images within the image itself is a common practice in research papers and is used to provide additional information about the image or to highlight specific parts of the image. There are several methods to label images in a research paper:

• Use annotations or callouts : These are text boxes or shapes that can be added to the image to provide additional information or to highlight specific parts of the image. Annotation tools are available in most photo editing software, including Adobe Photoshop or GIMP.
• Use arrows, lines or shapes : You can use arrows, lines or shapes to draw attention to specific parts of the image or to show relationships between different parts of the image. This is especially useful in images that show complex structures or relationships.
• Use overlay text : You can add overlay text to the image to provide additional information. This is useful in cases where you want to provide information about the image that is not immediately obvious from the image itself.
• Label the axes : In images that represent data, it is important to label the axes to help the reader understand the data being represented. This can be done using annotation tools or by using overlay text.
• Use colour coding : You can use colour coding to highlight specific parts of the image or to show relationships between different parts of the image. This is especially useful in images that show complex structures or relationships.

It is important to use labelling and annotations in a clear and concise manner, as they help to provide additional information about the image and to make the image easier to understand. Labels and annotations should also be placed in a consistent manner throughout the research paper to help maintain visual consistency.

Sometimes you have huge amount of image data with data labelling requirements for your research tasks. Then my advice to you is to outsource the image data for data labelling expert while taking proper care regarding your data protection. I have written a blog post on outsourcing images for data labelling. You can visit the post below.

Outsourcing Research Data Labelling: Risks and Rewards for Researchers

Sometimes research scholars are badly in need of financial assistance. They can not take regular job due to the research work and stress they may come across because of the new job. They can take up data labelling jobs which is a pure mechanical work rather a mental stress. I have written an article on data labelling jobs for researchers. Please visit the blog post below for further details.

Data Annotation (Data Labelling): A  Part-Time Job for Research Scholars

Following is the list of image labelling tools that are commonly used in research papers. The choice of tool will depend on the specific needs of the research paper and the level of detail required in the labelling and annotations.

• Adobe Photoshop : Adobe Photoshop is a professional-grade image editing software that has robust features for annotating and labelling images. It allows you to add text boxes, shapes, arrows, and lines to an image and also has a variety of brush tools for more detailed labelling.
• GIMP : GIMP is a free and open-source image editing software that has similar features to Adobe Photoshop. It allows you to add text boxes, shapes, and arrows to an image and also has a variety of brush tools for detailed labelling.
• Inkscape : Inkscape is a free and open-source vector graphics editor that is often used for annotating and labelling images. It has robust features for adding text boxes, shapes, and lines to an image, and also allows you to import and export images in a variety of file formats.
• Microsoft PowerPoint : Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation software that has basic image labelling tools. It allows you to add text boxes, shapes, and arrows to an image but is limited in its capabilities compared to Adobe Photoshop or GIMP.
• Canva : Canva is a user-friendly design tool that has a variety of features for annotating and labelling images. It allows you to add text boxes, shapes, and arrows to an image and also has a variety of design elements that can be added to an image.

These are just a few examples of image-labelling tools that are commonly used in research papers. The choice of tool will depend on the specific needs of the research paper and the level of detail required in the labelling and annotations.

It is recommended to include relevant keywords in the caption of images in a research paper. Keywords are an important aspect of search engine optimization (SEO) and can help increase the visibility of the paper online. By including keywords in the caption, you make it easier for readers to understand the context and content of the image, and you also help search engines better understand the context of the paper. Additionally, including keywords in the caption can also help establish a clear connection between the image and the rest of the paper, making it easier for readers to understand the overall narrative of the research.

For maps created by government agencies (e.g. USGS, NASA), copyright restrictions may apply, but generally these maps can be used for educational and research purposes without obtaining permission.

For maps created by commercial map providers (e.g. Google Maps, Mapbox), the use of the map may be subject to licensing agreements and usage restrictions. In these cases, it is important to review the terms and conditions of use and to obtain the necessary permission before including the map in your research paper.

For custom maps created by individuals or organizations, it is important to obtain permission from the creator before using the map in your research paper. This includes both maps created by yourself as well as maps created by others that you would like to include in your paper.

It is always best to check the copyright and usage restrictions for any maps you plan to include in your research paper, and to obtain the necessary permission if required, in order to ensure that you are using the maps in a legal and ethical manner.

In conclusion, the inclusion of graphics in research articles can significantly affect their clarity, interest level, and overall impact. Images can enhance research papers’ clarity, depth, and visual appeal, allowing authors to convey their findings and concepts. But it’s crucial to use images wisely, keeping in mind things like relevancy, clarity, captioning, and accessibility. Researchers and authors should be aware of both the advantages and disadvantages of utilising images in their work, whether they choose to do so with photographs, drawings, or block diagrams. Researchers can improve the impact of their research papers and more effectively explain their findings by using photographs strategically.

Researchers can improve the impact of their research papers and more effectively explain their findings by using photographs strategically. It is ultimately up to each researcher and author to harness the power of images in research papers in order to make their work stand out.

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How to include pictures in a research paper

It is often said that a picture can speak more than a thousand words. In all kinds of research papers, pictures are essential in adding to the richness of the literature and analysis because of the valuable insight they can offer. For example, pictures of measured data from statistical applications are very important additions to the “Data presentation and analysis” chapter or section of any research paper.

This is because they help to complement verbal discussions or analysis by offering a visual presentation of the statistical technique used to measure the variables of interest. However, where the researcher is not the originator of such pictures, it is very important to cite the source of the picture according to the prescribed format. In the case of statistical applications mentioned above, for example, be sure to disclose which application generated the picture or printout as well as the version of such an application (e.g., SPSS version 27).   

What is a research paper?

A research paper is a form of academic writing which involves formally investigating a field of knowledge or topic of interest in order to add to the existing stock of knowledge in that field and/or solve a particular problem. Educational research is formal because it is not based on the subjective discretions of the researcher but on an accepted and objective standard such as the scientific method of inquiry. Research papers can be of different types. These include term papers, seminar presentations, undergraduate projects, post-graduate thesis or dissertations, conference/workshop papers, and journal entries, among others.

Though these highlighted papers and others can be structured in diverse ways, conducting research in this context basically requires that the researcher identifies a problem or area of interest; formulates research questions and/or hypothesis; reviews the existing literature in the field; collects, measures and analyzes relevant data; discusses the findings; makes conclusions and recommendations based on the findings and then suggests possible directions for future research.

Some things to consider before including pictures in a research paper

As noted above, pictures can complement words to make a research paper richer in terms of providing more insight. However, the researcher must ensure that such pictures are optimally included to generate the desired effects. To this end, some of the tips below can help.

Ensure the picture adds value to your research paper

Pictures may be a necessary aspect of some research papers but this does not imply that they should not be selected meticulously and meritoriously. The researcher must critically evaluate all pictures he or she intends to include in their paper and select only the most relevant, i.e., those that will help illuminate verbal discussions/analysis and consequently deepen the understanding of readers.   

Proper labeling and citation

Research papers are formal documents with rules on how each of them should be written, structured, or formatted. Therefore, ensure that your pictures are labeled according to the rules provided by whoever the paper is meant for (such as a university department or a print journal). The rules are usually determined by Style Guides like the Modern Language Association (MLA), the American Psychological Association, etc. Properly citing the sources of any picture you have borrowed is necessary to enable you avoid plagiarism.

Pictures should be suitably located

After toiling hard to gather the pictures needed for his or her research, the researcher should ensure that the selected pictures are appropriately inserted into the desired areas of the paper. In some social science projects and theses, for example, a tabular presentation of the data used for the research is located on the first page of the fourth chapter titled “Data presentation and analysis.”

Sometimes the researcher may have several pictures that cannot all be accommodated in the main body of a project or thesis/dissertation. In such instances, it will be appropriate to attach such pictures in the “Appendices” section at the end of the paper.

Carry the images along

The pictures do not serve as mere decorations but have been selected to help provide more insight and thus enrich the research paper. To this end, the researcher should ensure that the pictures are properly integrated into the verbal discussions or analysis in the paper.  For example, “Figure 1.0 is a graphical representation of all the differenced variables in the time series.” etc.

Citing pictures in a research paper

There are many kinds of pictures as well as picture sources and they can also be cited in a variety of ways. For simplicity, the examples in this article will focus entirely on how to cite digital (internet) pictures.

Format: Image Creator’s Last Name, First Name. “Image Title.”  Website Name , Day Month Year Published, URL.  

Example: Jones, Daniel. “The Hope Creek nuclear plant.” LearnersHub ,  9 November 2017, www.learnershub.net/2017/09/11/nuclear-technology-explained.html.

Chicago style

Format: Last Name, First Name. M [initials]. “Title.” Digital image. Website Title. Month Date, Year published. Accessed Month Date, Year. URL.

If the picture has no title, then a description can be used instead.

Date Accessed should only be included if the publication date is unavailable.

Example: Jones, Daniel R. “The Hope Creek nuclear plant.”Digital image. LearnersHub ,  Accessed 9 November 2017. www.learnershub.net.

Format: Author’s last name. First initial. (Publication or creation date). Title of image [Type of image]. Name of publisher. Museum or university. URL.

Example: Jones,  R. 2017.   The Hope Creek nuclear plant .[Photo]. National Science Museum. https//:www.nationalsciencemsuem.org/nuclearscience/2017/11/the-hope-creek-nuclear-plant.jpg.

Pictures of all kinds (including tables, charts, graphs, figures, photographs, etc) are useful components in a research paper. This is because of the insight they can bring by complementing verbal discussions and analysis. However, pictures should not be included in a research paper arbitrarily but follow some guidelines such as those presented above.

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How to cite images and graphs in your research paper

Table of Contents

If you are confused about whether you should include pictures, images, charts, and other non-textual elements in your research paper or not, I would suggest you must insert such elements in your research paper. Including non-textual elements like images and charts in the research paper helps extract a higher acceptance of your proposed theories.

An image or chart will make your research paper more attractive, interesting, explanatory, and understandable for the audience. In addition, when you cite an image or chart, it helps you describe your research and its parts with far more precision than simple, long paragraphs.

There are plenty of reasons why you should cite images in your research paper. However, most scholars and academicians avoid it altogether, losing the opportunity to make their research papers more interesting and garner higher readership.

Additionally, it has been observed that there are many misconceptions around the use or citation of images in research papers. For example, it is widely believed and practiced that using pictures or any graphics in the research papers will render it unprofessional or non-academic. However, in reality, no such legit rules or regulations prohibit citing images or any graphic elements in the research papers.

You will find it much easier once you know the appropriate way to cite images or non-textual elements in your research paper. But, it’s important to keep in mind some rules and regulations for using different non-textual elements in your research paper. You can easily upgrade your academic/ research writing skills by leveraging various guides in our repository.

In this guide, you will find clear explanations and guidelines that will teach you how to identify appropriate images and other non-textual elements and cite them in your research paper. So, cut the clutter; let’s start.

Importance of citing images in a research paper

Although it’s not mandatory to cite images in a research paper, however, if you choose to include them, it will help showcase your deep understanding of the research topic. It can even represent the clarity you carry for your research topic and help the audience navigate your paper easily.

There are several reasons why you must cite images in your research paper like:

(i) A better explanation for the various phenomenon

While writing your research paper, certain topics will be comparatively more complex than others. In such a scenario where you find out that words are not providing the necessary explanation, you can always switch to illustrating the process using images. For example, you can write paragraphs describing climate change and its associated factors and/or cite a single illustration to describe the complete process with its embedded factors.

(ii) To simplify examples

To create an impeccable research paper, you need to include evidence and examples supporting your argument for the research topic. Rather than always explaining the supporting evidence and examples through words, it will be better to depict them through images. For example, to demonstrate climate change's effects on a region, you can always showcase and cite the “before and after” images.

(iii) Easy Classification

If your research topic requires segregation into various sub-topics and further, you can easily group and classify them in the form of a classification tree or a chart. Providing such massive information in the format of a classification tree will save you a lot of words and present the information in a more straightforward and understandable form to your audience.

(iv) Acquire greater attention from the audience

Including images in your research paper, theses, and dissertations will help you garner the audience's greater attention. If you add or cite images in the paper, it will provide a better understanding and clarification of the topics covered in your research. Additionally, it will make your research paper visually attractive.

Types of Images that you can use or cite in your research paper

Using and citing images in a research paper as already explained can make your research paper more understanding and structured in appearance. For this, you can use photos, drawings, charts, graphs, infographics, etc. However, there are no mandatory regulations to use or cite images in a research paper, but there are some recommendations as per the journal style.

Before including any images in your research paper, you need to ensure that it fits the research topic and syncs with your writing style. As already mentioned, there are no strict regulations around the usage of images. However, you should make sure that it satisfies certain parameters like:

• Try using HD quality images for better picture clarity in both print and electronic formats
• It should not be copyrighted, and if it is, you must obtain the license to use it. In short cite the image properly by providing necessary credits to its owner
• The image should satisfy the context of the research topic

You can cite images in your research paper either at the end, in between the topics, or in a separate section for all the non-textual elements used in the paper. You can choose to insert images in between texts, but you need to provide the in-text citations for every image that has been used.

Additionally, you need to attach the name, description and image number so that your research paper stays structured. Moreover, you must cite or add the copyright details of the image if you borrow images from other platforms to avoid any copyright infringement.

Graphs and Charts

You can earn an advantage by providing better and simple explanations through graphs and charts rather than wordy descriptions. There are several reasons why you must cite or include graphs and charts in your research paper:

• To draw a comparison between two events, phenomena, or any two random parameters
• Illustration of statistics through charts and graphs are most significant in drawing audience attention towards your research topic
• Classification tree or pie charts goes best to show off the degree of influence of a specific event, or phenomenon in your research paper

With the usage of graphs and charts, you can answer several questions of your readers without them even questioning. With charts and graphs, you can provide an immense amount of information in a brief yet attractive manner to your readers, as these elements keep them interested in your research topic.

Providing these non-textual elements in your research paper increases its readability. Moreover, the graphs and charts will drive the reader’s attention compared to text-heavy paragraphs.

You can easily use the graphs or charts of some previously done research in your chosen domain, provided that you cite them appropriately, or else you can create your graphs through different tools like Canva, Excel, or MS PowerPoint. Additionally, you must provide supporting statements for the graphs and charts so that readers can understand the meaning of these illustrations easily.

Similarly, like pictures or images, you can choose one of the three possible methods of placement in your research paper, i.e., either after the text or on a different page right after the corresponding paragraph or inside the paragraph itself.

How to Cite Images and Graphs in a Research Paper?

Once you have decided the type of images you will be using in your paper, understand the rules of various journals for the fair usage of these elements. Using pictures or graphs as per these rules will help your reader navigate and understand your research paper easily. If you borrow or cite previously used pictures or images, you need to follow the correct procedure for that citation.

Usage or citation of pictures or graphs is not prohibited in any academic writing style, and it just differs from each other due to their respective formats.

Cite an Image/Graphs in APA (American Psychological Association) style

Most of the scientific works, society, and media-based research topics are presented in the APA style. It is usually followed by museums, exhibitions, galleries, libraries, etc. If you create your research paper in APA style and cite already used images or graphics, you need to provide complete information about the source.

In APA style, the list of the information that you must provide while citing an element is as follows:

• Owner of the image (artist, designer, photographer, etc.)
• Complete Date of the Image: Follow the simple DD/MM/YYYY to provide the details about the date of the image. If you have chosen a certain historical image, you can choose to provide the year only, as the exact date or month may be unknown
• Country or City where the Image was first published
• A Name or Title of the Image (Optional: Means If it is not available, you can skip it)
• Publisher Name: Organization, association, or the person to whom the image was first submitted

If you want to cite some images from the internet, try providing its source link rather than the name or webpage.

Format/Example of Image Citation:

Johanson, M. (Photographer). (2017, September, Vienna, Austria. Rescued bird. National gallery.

Cite an Image/Graphs in MLA (Modern Language Association) style

MLA style is again one of the most preferred styles worldwide for research paper publication. You can easily use or cite images in this style provided no rights of the image owner get violated. Additionally, the format or the information required for citation or usage is very brief yet precise.

In the MLA style, the following are the details that a used image or graph must carry:

• Name of the creator of the owner
• Title, Name, or the Description of the Image
• Website Or the Source were first published
• Contributors Name (if any)
• Version or Serial Number (if any)
• Publisher’s Details; at least Name must be provided
• Full Date (DD:MM: YYYY) of the first published Image
• Link to the original image

Auteur, Henry. “Abandoned gardens, Potawatomi, Ontario.” Historical Museum, Reproduction no. QW-YUJ78-1503141, 1989, www.flickr.com/pictures/item/609168336/

Final Words

It is easy to cite images in your research paper, and you should add different forms of non-textual elements in the paper. There are different rules for using or citing images in research papers depending on writing styles to ensure that your paper doesn’t fall for copyright infringement or the owner's rights get violated.

No matter which writing style you choose to write your paper, make sure that you provide all the details in the appropriate format. Once you have all the details and understanding of the format of usage or citation, feel free to use as many images that make your research paper intriguing and interesting enough.

If you still have doubts about how to use or cite images, join our SciSpace (Formerly Typeset) Community and post your questions there. Our experts will address your queries at the earliest. Explore the community to know what's buzzing and be a part of hot discussion topics in the academic domain.

Learn more about SciSpace's dedicated research solutions by heading to our product page. Our suite of products can simplify your research workflows so that you can focus more on what you do best: advance science.

With a best-in-class solution, you can handle everything from literature search and discovery to profile management, research writing, and formatting.

But Before You Go,

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Using Images in Publications

Many scholarly publications are enhanced with images, ranging from reproductions of fine art to graphs showing the results of scientific research. Including images in books and articles can complement the text, visually demonstrate the author's analysis, and engage the reader. Using images in publications, however, raises copyright issues, which can be complex, time-consuming, and expensive. To help authors navigate this process, publishers often provide specific guidance, including what rights must be requested, acceptable file formats, image resolution, etc. See Requesting 3rd party Permissions  from Oxford Journals or Image Guidelines from Johns Hopkins University Press as examples. 

The primary issues that you need to aware of when incorporating images in your publication are: 

The right to publish a copyrighted image is controlled by the copyright owner, so each copyrighted image that you use must have permission or fall within an exception to the general copyright statue, such as public domain, fair use, or open access. Copyright permission fees are sometimes waived or reduced for scholarly publications; if not, however, they can be quite expensive as well as time-consuming to obtain. We recommend that you begin the permissions process early to avoid any last-minute complications that may delay publication of your work. In addition to copyright permission, some museums and other providers of images charge a fee for the production or use of a digital image from their collections, even if the underlying work is in the public domain. Like permissions fees, use fees are sometimes waived or reduced for scholarly publications.

High resolution images

Publishers will require a high resolution image for publication (usually at least 300 ppi). These may come from museums, archives, other collections, your own work, or suppliers of stock photos. There may be a fee assessed for use, the amount of which can vary significantly depending on who is supplying the image and how you are using it.

Printing costs

The cost of printing images can be substantial for the publisher, so be sure to discuss with your editor how many images they will publish, whether they will be in color, and whether a subvention will be required if the manuscript contains a large number of images.

Privacy and publicity rights

If you have a photograph with people in it, there may be privacy or publicity rights that need to be addressed.

• Susan Bielstein,  Copyright Clearance: A Publisher's Perspective  (2005) (article begins on page 19)
• Susan Bielstein,  Permissions, A Survival Guide: Blunt Talk about Art as Intellectual Property  (2006) (ebook - Georgetown NetID required for off-campus access)
• Lois Farfel Stark, Obtaining Image Permissions for Your Book: An Author’s Perspective (2018)

Copyright Principles

Public domain.

If you can find a usable image in a book or journal article published before 1927, it will be in the public domain , and therefore free of any copyright restrictions. Certain images published between 1927 and 1989 may also be in the public domain, depending on if they were published with a copyright notice and if the copyright was renewed. For more information, use this public domain chart or contact [email protected] .

Works of the United States government are also in the public domain and may be used freely.

Some museums, libraries, and archives make public domain images freely available with few or no restrictions. Read more in the Finding Images  section.

Open Access / Creative Commons

Wikimedia Commons has a large collection of images that are licensed using the Creative Commons licensing system . Restrictions, if any, are listed with the image. It is important to recognize that if you use Wikimedia, you are relying on copyright information provided by the person uploading the image. You should review the copyright information carefully to be sure it appears to be accurate.

Many of the licenses in Wikimedia permit noncommercial uses only. The definition of noncommercial for purposes of the CC BY-NC license is, “NonCommercial means not primarily intended for or directed towards commercial advantage or monetary compensation.” Creative Commons provides some further guidance on how to  interpret  the NC license. 

Under certain circumstances, publishers may be comfortable with relying on fair use when publishing images accompanying scholarly works.

The guidelines in the College Art Association’s Code of Best Practices in Fair Use for the Visual Arts set out the fair use arguments for using art for educational purposes: 

PRINCIPLE In their analytic writing about art, scholars and other writers (and, by extension, their publishers) may invoke fair use to quote, excerpt, or reproduce copyrighted works, subject to certain limitations:

Limitations

• The writer’s use of the work, whether in part or in whole, should be justified by the analytic objective, and the user should be prepared to articulate that justification.
• The writer’s analytic objective should predominate over that of merely representing the work or works used.
• The amount and kind of material used and (where images are concerned) the size and resolution of the published reproduction should not exceed that appropriate to the analytic objective.
• Justifications for use and the amount used should be considered especially carefully in connection with digital-format reproductions of born-digital works, where there is a heightened risk that reproductions may function as substitutes for the originals.
• Reproductions of works should represent the original works as accurately as can be achieved under the circumstances.
• The writing should provide attribution of the original work as is customary in the field, to the extent possible.

Your own work

If you have your own high resolution photograph, you may use it freely since you own the copyright in your photograph. If, however, your photograph is of a copyrighted work of art, permission of the artist will be required unless it is a fair use . Note that many museums do not allow photography of works in their collections, so obtaining your own image of a work of art may not be an option. While architectural works are subject to copyright protection, photographs of publicly viewable buildings may be used. 17 U.S.C. § 120(a) .

If your image does not fall into any of the above categories, you will need to request permission from the copyright holder for use of the image. You may be able to obtain permission from one of the sites listed in the next section, or you may need to request permission from the artists or their representatives. The Artists Rights Society represents the intellectual property rights interests of visual artists and their estates worldwide and covers works in private collections as well as museums and galleries. ARS has a request form for permissions requests. Note that ARS handles permission requests only and does not supply images of the works.

For more general information on requesting permission, visit our Requesting Permission page.

Finding Images

Museums, libraries, and archives.

Some museums, libraries, and archives have collections of public domain images available for use in scholarly publications. The content of the collections and the permitted uses vary among institutions. Many do not allow images to be used as cover art since that is usually considered to be a commercial use, and some limit use to print publications. Below is a list of libraries and museums that make works available with few or no restrictions. 

• British Library  - The British Library’s collection on flickr allows access to millions of public domain images from the Library's collections. Higher quality images, if required, are available for purchase through the British Library. For more information, visit the Library's Images Online page.  
• J. Paul Getty Museum  - The Getty makes available, without charge, all available digital images to which the Getty holds the rights or that are in the public domain to be used for any purpose. More information about the content of the collections is available on their  Open Content Program  page.
• Library of Congress - Prints and Photographs - This collection has over 1,200,000 digitized images from the Library's collections. Rights information is available for each image - look for the field marked "Rights Advisory." Many collections have no known restrictions on use. For further information about using the collection, read the Copyright and Other Restrictions That Apply to Publication/Distribution of Images . Information on restrictions on use by collection is also available.
• National Gallery of Art  - NGA Images is a repository of images  presumed to be in the public domain  from the collections of the National Gallery of Art. Users may download— free of charge and without seeking authorization from the Gallery— any image of a work in the Gallery’s collection that the Gallery believes is in the public domain and is free of other known restrictions.
• New York Public Library  - This collection contains more than 180,000 photographs, postcards, maps and other public-domain items from the library’s special collections in downloadable high-resolution files. High resolutions downloads are available with no permission required and no restrictions on use.
• Victoria & Albert Museum - These images of art from the collections of the V&A are available for academic publishing with some limitations (print runs up to 4,000 copies or 5 years online use). Read the full  terms and conditions  to see if your use qualifies.

Stock image sites

There are many companies that provide both a high quality image for publication and a license for publication. These sites usually have good selection of images, the images are high quality, and the search features are sophisticated. Licensing fees vary considerably and can be high, though you may be able to negotiate a discount for use in a scholarly publication.

For some of the sites listed below, the price will vary depending on which rights you need for publication: print/electronic, region of the world, number of languages, number of books, where the image will be placed (inside/cover), and size of the image. After entering that information, a license fee will display based on your use. The license fee is not automatically available for some images; for those, you will usually receive an email message after submitting your request. You should consult with your editor when selecting options to be sure you have selected the appropriate options for your book or article.

• Art Resource (license fee based on rights needed)
• Bridgeman Images (license fee based on rights needed)
• Getty Images (license fee based on rights needed)
• iStock (flat fee)
• Shutterstock (flat fee)

JSTOR Images Search

JSTOR Images Search (Georgetown NetID required for off-campus access) is a subscription database that includes some images specifically licensed for academic publishing. These images are identified with “IAP” (Images for Academic Publishing) under the thumbnail image in your search results. Details of the use, including size of print run and credit line, vary among IAP images. You can view these by clicking on the IAP icon under the thumbnail image. The Terms and Conditions agreement displays when you download the image. Most JSTOR images, however, are not in the IAP program and are not licensed for use in scholarly publishing. To use a non-IAP image in a book or article, you will usually need to request permission or go through a fee-based stock photo archive, often Art Resource, for a license. JSTOR provides contact information for permissions in the "Rights Notes" section of image information page.

You may also find usable images for publication on the sites listed on.

Additional options

• College Art Association's list of image sources
• Georgetown Library's Copyright and Multimedia: Images page
• Georgetown Library's Images LibGuide

Specific Uses

Cover images.

Images that appear on the cover of a book often require specific permission for that use and a higher fee.

Film frames

The Association of University Presses has this statement on fair use and film frames in their Permissions FAQ :

You may use frame enlargements and publicity stills (both from films and from television shows) when you can justify their inclusion in the work under fair use guidelines—for example, when it can be argued that the illustration serves as a quote from the filmic “text” to illustrate a point. Be conservative in selecting material—if the still or frame illuminates a point you are making or is specifically discussed, then the use may qualify as fair use. Where possible, limit the number of frames reprinted from any one film and from different films that represent the subject of your work. If your use is decorative, you must seek permission from the rightsholder to include it. When purchasing material from a photo agency, read the conditions stated on the agreement and on the back of the photo very carefully (particularly the fine print). In all cases, acknowledge the original copyright holder. For a more in-depth analysis of fair use as related to stills and frame enlargements, the fair use section of the Society for Cinema and Media Studies website offers a number of policy statements and disciplinary guidelines that may be useful.

If your use goes beyond fair use, or if your publisher has a more restrictive policy, you will need to get permission from the copyright owner. Most major film studios have a licensing division where you can submit a request –  MGM ,  Sony ,  Warner Brothers , Paramount Pictures ,   Universal , and Walt Disney Studios , for example. For smaller producers, you will need to contact them directly with your request.

Charts, graphs, and figures

There are differences among publishers with respect to what permissions they require for graphs, so a good first step is to consult with your editor on their policies. A few sample policies are:

• Princeton University Press - "Where a chart, graph, or table is being reproduced in a critical study of the work or to buttress an argument of the writer, no permission is needed. Data is not copyrightable. Unless there is a creative element to data depiction that is being reproduced without alteration, fair use can be asserted, with attribution."
• Harvard University Press - "Data is not protected by copyright. However, graphics like tables and charts are copyright protected if the data is organized or presented in a unique way or if the graphic provides interpretation of the data. If you plan to reprint a graphic from another source that is protected by copyright, please clear permission. If you plan to reprint existing tables and charts, adapt existing tables and charts, or create your own tables and charts that will not be subject to copyright protection, please refer to the following guidelines for credit: The standard way to credit tables and charts you are reprinting is: Source: Credit."
• Oxford University Press - "As a guide, you should always seek permission for:  . . . Pictures (paintings, drawings, charts, engravings, photographs, cartoons, and so on); Figures and maps; Tables."

There are permissions guidelines that many STM publishers use in setting policies for the reuse of images from their publications. The guidelines include gratis permission for the use of limited numbers of figures/tables/images from journal articles or books, though note that not all members have adopted policies exactly as written in the guidelines.

Many publishers who follow the STM guidelines, or who have similar policies, provide free permissions through the Copyright Clearance Center's Marketplace  so those requests are usually quick, easy, and free. The Marketplace system requires information about your publication and exactly what rights you are seeking. For charts, graphs, or figures that fall outside the guidelines, the license fees are often in the $20-$50 range, although that depends on many factors and could be higher or lower.

If you have questions about using images in a scholarly publication, please email [email protected] .

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Home » Figures in Research Paper – Examples and Guide

Figures in Research Paper – Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

Figures in Research Paper

Figures play an essential role in research papers as they provide a visual representation of data, results, and concepts presented in the text. Figures can include graphs, charts, diagrams, photographs, and other visual aids that enhance the reader’s understanding of the research.

Importance of Figures in Research Paper

Here are some specific ways in which figures can be important in a research paper:

• Visual representation of data : Figures can be used to present data in a clear and concise way. This makes it easier for readers to understand the results of experiments and studies.
• Simplify complex ideas: Some concepts can be difficult to explain using words alone. Figures can be used to simplify complex ideas and make them more accessible to a wider audience.
• Increase reader engagement : Figures can make a research paper more engaging and interesting to read. They break up long blocks of text and can make the paper more visually appealing.
• Support arguments: Figures can be used to support arguments made in the paper. For example, a graph or chart can be used to show a correlation between two variables, providing evidence for a particular hypothesis.
• Convey important information: Figures can be used to convey important information quickly and efficiently. This is particularly useful when the paper is being read by someone who is short on time and needs to quickly understand the main points.

Types of Figures in Research Paper

There are several types of figures commonly used in research papers, including:

• Line graphs: These are used to show trends or changes in data over time.
• Bar graphs: These are used to compare data across different categories or groups.
• Pie charts: These are used to show proportions or percentages of data.
• Scatterplots : These are used to show the relationship between two variables.
• Tables : These are used to present large amounts of data in a structured format.
• Photographs or images : These are used to provide visual context or examples of the research being presented.
• Diagrams or schematics : These are used to illustrate complex processes or systems.

How to add Figures to Research Paper

Adding figures to a research paper can be a great way to visually convey important information to the reader. Here are some general guidelines for adding figures to your research paper:

• Determine the appropriate type of figure: Depending on the information you want to convey, you may want to use a graph, chart, table, photograph, or other type of figure.
• Label the figure: Give your figure a descriptive title and number it. Also, include a brief caption that explains what the figure shows.
• Place the figure in the appropriate location : Generally, figures should be placed as close as possible to the text that refers to them. For example, if you mention a figure in the middle of a paragraph, it should be placed within that paragraph.
• Format the figure appropriately: Ensure that the figure is clear and easy to read. Use consistent fonts and font sizes, and make sure the figure is large enough to be easily seen.
• Cite the source of the figure: If the figure was not created by you, you must cite the source of the figure in your paper. This includes citing the author or creator, the date of creation, and any relevant publication information.
• Consider copyright : Ensure that you have permission to use any figures that are copyrighted. If the figure is copyrighted, you may need to obtain permission from the copyright holder to use it in your paper.

How to Label Figures in Research Paper

Labeling figures in a research paper is an important task that helps readers to understand the content of the paper. Here are the steps to label figures in a research paper:

• Decide on the numbering system: Before labeling the figures, decide on the numbering system that you want to use. Typically, figures are numbered consecutively throughout the paper, with the first figure being labeled as “Figure 1,” the second figure as “Figure 2,” and so on.
• Choose a clear and concise caption: A caption is a brief description of the figure that appears below the figure. It should be clear and concise and should describe the content of the figure accurately. The caption should be written in a way that readers can understand the figure without having to read the entire paper.
• Place the label and caption appropriately: The label and caption should be placed below the figure. The label should be centered and should include the figure number and a brief title. The caption should be placed below the label and should describe the figure in detail.
• Use consistent formatting: Make sure that the formatting of the labels and captions is consistent throughout the paper. Use the same font, size, and style for all figures in the paper.
• Reference figures in the text : When referring to a figure in the text, use the figure number and label. For example, “As shown in Figure 1, the results indicate that…”

Figure 1. Distribution of survey responses

In this example, “Figure 1” is the figure number, and “Distribution of survey responses” is a brief title or description of the figure.

The label should be placed at the top of the figure and should be centered. It should be clear and easy to read. It’s important to use a consistent format for all figures in the paper to make it easier for readers to follow.

Examples of Figures in Research Paper

Examples of Figures in Research Papers or Thesis are as follows:

Line graphs Example

Bar graphs Example

Pie charts Example

Scatterplots Example

Tables Example

Photographs or images Example

Diagrams or schematics Example

Purpose of Figures in Research Paper

Some common purposes of figures in research papers are:

• To summarize data: Figures can be used to present data in a concise and easy-to-understand manner. For example, graphs can be used to show trends or patterns in data, while tables can be used to summarize numerical information.
• To support arguments : Figures can be used to support arguments made in the text of the research paper. For example, a figure showing the results of an experiment can help to demonstrate the validity of the conclusions drawn from the experiment.
• To illustrate concepts: Figures can be used to illustrate abstract or complex concepts that are difficult to explain in words. For example, diagrams or illustrations can be used to show the structure of a complex molecule or the workings of a machine.
• To enhance readability: Figures can make a research paper more engaging and easier to read. By breaking up long blocks of text, figures can help to make the paper more visually appealing and easier to understand.
• To provide context : Figures can be used to provide context for the research being presented. For example, a map or diagram can help to show the location or layout of a study site or experimental setup.
• To compare results : Figures can be used to compare results from different experiments or studies. This can help to highlight similarities or differences in the data and draw comparisons between different research findings.
• To show relationships : Figures can be used to show relationships between different variables or factors. For example, a scatter plot can be used to show the correlation between two variables, while a network diagram can be used to show how different elements are connected to each other.
• To present raw data: Figures can be used to present raw data in a way that is easier to understand. For example, a heat map can be used to show the distribution of data over a geographic region, while a histogram can be used to show the distribution of data within a single variable.

Advantages of Figures in Research Paper

Figures (such as charts, graphs, diagrams, and photographs) are an important component of research papers and offer several advantages, including:

• Enhancing clarity : Figures can help to visually communicate complex data or information in a clear and concise manner. They can help readers better understand the research and its findings.
• Saving space : Figures can often convey information more efficiently than text, allowing researchers to present more information in less space.
• Improving readability : Figures can break up large blocks of text and make a paper more visually appealing and easier to read.
• Supporting arguments: Figures can be used to support arguments made in the text and help to strengthen the overall message of the paper.
• Enabling comparisons: Figures can be used to compare different data points, which can be difficult to do with text alone. This can help readers to see patterns and relationships in the data more easily.
• Providing context : Figures can provide context for the research, such as showing the geographic location of study sites or providing a visual representation of the study population.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Designing High-Quality Images for Research Papers and Theses: The Available Tools

Manuscripts express data collected from months or years of careful experimentation. However, raw data or narratives alone don’t make good journal articles. Data visualization tools and free drawing software enable scientists to explain their scientific story. By using tools to perfect scientific illustration, your manuscript can grab reviewers’ attention. More importantly, it will help your readers understand data quickly, increasing the likelihood of citing and sharing your research paper .

Why Image Quality Matters

  Journals have strict guidelines regarding figure/image quality (e.g. “dots per inch”/DPI or number of pixels per image). Editors and their staff will turn down manuscripts prior to review if the images are of insufficient quality. Furthermore, poor figure quality can leave a bad impression on readers and reviewers. So, when editing and creating scientific images, be sure to use scientific illustration software or drawing tools to make your data clear and understandable!

Tables can help communicate data quickly to readers, who are often short on time. For this reason, when you have a well-designed table, your paper can have a far greater impact. For this reason, your tables should have clear and descriptive titles, well-defined headings , aligned data entries in each cell, and clearly defined units for all data entries. Meanwhile, when designing figures, there are many tools available to researchers to create publication-ready images.

Related: Creating images for your research paper? Check out these resources and avoid image manipulation now!

Uses and Limitations of Common Tools

There is a myriad of tools available for scientists. Picking which one to work with depends on your computer literacy, budget, and desired outcomes.

R is a free statistics computing program that also facilitates graphics development. It works on a variety of operating systems. Furthermore, the default design choices for image rendering were made to generate publication-quality plots with ease. While it is free, it is not as user-friendly as subscription services, such as Prism, which allows for both data analysis and figure development.

ImageJ is a freely available software developed by the National Institutes of Health . In short, it is an image-processing program that allows users to edit, analyze, process, save, print, modify colors, and quantitate images . One of the more exciting features is its ability to generate stacks (a series of images) from videos or convert photos into videos. This is helpful for live cell imaging.

Inkspace is a quality vector graphics editor that is open sourced and provides flexible drawing tools . It has broad file format compatibility and a powerful text tool.

GIMP is a free image manipulation program that can be combined with plugins to enhance features. It requires greater computer literacy than most other image formatting tools.

Cytospace is an open source network for complex network analysis that helps users integrate, analyze, and visualize data. While it is free to use, it is not as user-friendly as Ingenuity Pathway Analysis, which allows for pathways to be designed and rendered artistically with great ease (for a fee, of course).

ImageMagick is another tool that can be used to read and write images in many commonly used formats (e.g., PNG, JPEG, FIG, TIFF, PDF, etc). For this reason, it can modify images in nearly any manner. It allows users to composite images, animate, manage color, decorate, draw, and delineate image features (e.g., edges of colors). Furthermore, it is compatible with multiple coding languages.

• While creating figures can be a fun process, it’s important to always do it correctly. First, check the required format for images prior to submitting. If you have to convert the image file, check to ensure that your DPI is still at least 300.
• Once ready to submit, carefully review figures for errors prior to publishing. One method of doing this is to print your figures in color and review them manually. This will help you spot oddities that may have otherwise been missed by an electronic review.
• When modifying your images for publication, never manipulate your images in a manner that is fraudulent. Western blots are often the most suspicious images available that will carefully be scrutinized by your reviewers.
• Finally, while a lot of data is helpful to have, be sure to reduce the presence of “chartjunk” – the unnecessary visual elements that distract the reader from what really matters…your data!

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Creating clear and informative image-based figures for scientific publications

Roles Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

¶ ‡ These authors share first authorship on this work.

Affiliation Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, Medical Faculty, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Italy, Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy

Roles Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Orthogonal Research and Education Laboratory, Champaign, IL, United States of America

Affiliation Evolutionary Genomics Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology, Okinawa, Japan

Roles Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Biology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany

Affiliations Max Plank Institute of Immunology and Epigenetics, Freiburg, Germany, Hubrecht Institute, Utrecht, the Netherlands

Affiliation Carl R Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America

Roles Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Visualization, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Junior Research Group Evolution of Microbial Interactions, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology—Hans Knöll Institute (HKI), Jena, Germany

Affiliations CIBIO/InBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Campus Agrário de Vairão, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal, Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal

Affiliations The Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, Austin, MN, United States of America, The Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States of America

Affiliation Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark

Affiliations Neuroscience Research Center, Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt—Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany, Einstein Center for Neurosciences Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Affiliation Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States of America

Affiliation Gastroenterology and Hepatology Unit, Internal Medicine Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zagazig, Zagazig, Egypt

Affiliation Institute for Computational Medicine and the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States of America

Affiliation National Centre for Biological Sciences (NCBS), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Bangalore, Karnataka, India

Affiliation Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States of America

•  [ ... ],

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Berlin Institute of Health at Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, QUEST Center, Berlin, Germany

• [ view all ]
• [ view less ]
• Helena Jambor, 
• Alberto Antonietti, 
• Bradly Alicea, 
• Tracy L. Audisio, 
• Susann Auer, 
• Vivek Bhardwaj, 
• Steven J. Burgess, 
• Iuliia Ferling, 
• Małgorzata Anna Gazda, 

• Published: March 31, 2021
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001161
• See the preprint
• Peer Review
• Reader Comments

Scientists routinely use images to display data. Readers often examine figures first; therefore, it is important that figures are accessible to a broad audience. Many resources discuss fraudulent image manipulation and technical specifications for image acquisition; however, data on the legibility and interpretability of images are scarce. We systematically examined these factors in non-blot images published in the top 15 journals in 3 fields; plant sciences, cell biology, and physiology ( n = 580 papers). Common problems included missing scale bars, misplaced or poorly marked insets, images or labels that were not accessible to colorblind readers, and insufficient explanations of colors, labels, annotations, or the species and tissue or object depicted in the image. Papers that met all good practice criteria examined for all image-based figures were uncommon (physiology 16%, cell biology 12%, plant sciences 2%). We present detailed descriptions and visual examples to help scientists avoid common pitfalls when publishing images. Our recommendations address image magnification, scale information, insets, annotation, and color and may encourage discussion about quality standards for bioimage publishing.

Citation: Jambor H, Antonietti A, Alicea B, Audisio TL, Auer S, Bhardwaj V, et al. (2021) Creating clear and informative image-based figures for scientific publications. PLoS Biol 19(3): e3001161. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001161

Academic Editor: Jason R. Swedlow, University of Dundee, UNITED KINGDOM

Received: October 19, 2020; Accepted: February 26, 2021; Published: March 31, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Jambor et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: The authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction. The abstraction protocol, data, code and slides for teaching are available on an OSF repository ( https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/B5296 ).

Funding: TLW was funded by American Heart Association grant 16GRNT30950002 ( https://www.heart.org/en/professional/institute/grants ) and a Robert W. Fulk Career Development Award (Mayo Clinic Division of Nephrology & Hypertension; https://www.mayoclinic.org/departments-centers/nephrology-hypertension/sections/overview/ovc-20464571 ). LHH was supported by The Hormel Foundation and National Institutes of Health grant CA187035 ( https://www.nih.gov ). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Abbreviations: GFP, green fluorescent protein; LUT, lookup table; OSF, Open Science Framework; RRID, research resource identifier

Introduction

Images are often used to share scientific data, providing the visual evidence needed to turn concepts and hypotheses into observable findings. An analysis of 8 million images from more than 650,000 papers deposited in PubMed Central revealed that 22.7% of figures were “photographs,” a category that included microscope images, diagnostic images, radiology images, and fluorescence images [ 1 ]. Cell biology was one of the most visually intensive fields, with publications containing an average of approximately 0.8 photographs per page [ 1 ]. Plant sciences papers included approximately 0.5 photographs per page [ 1 ].

While there are many resources on fraudulent image manipulation and technical requirements for image acquisition and publishing [ 2 – 4 ], data examining the quality of reporting and ease of interpretation for image-based figures are scarce. Recent evidence suggests that important methodological details about image acquisition are often missing [ 5 ]. Researchers generally receive little or no training in designing figures; yet many scientists and editors report that figures and tables are one of the first elements that they examine when reading a paper [ 6 , 7 ]. When scientists and journals share papers on social media, posts often include figures to attract interest. The PubMed search engine caters to scientists’ desire to see the data by presenting thumbnail images of all figures in the paper just below the abstract [ 8 ]. Readers can click on each image to examine the figure, without ever accessing the paper or seeing the introduction or methods. EMBO’s Source Data tool (RRID:SCR_015018) allows scientists and publishers to share or explore figures, as well as the underlying data, in a findable and machine readable fashion [ 9 ].

Image-based figures in publications are generally intended for a wide audience. This may include scientists in the same or related fields, editors, patients, educators, and grants officers. General recommendations emphasize that authors should design figures for their audience rather than themselves and that figures should be self-explanatory [ 7 ]. Despite this, figures in papers outside one’s immediate area of expertise are often difficult to interpret, marking a missed opportunity to make the research accessible to a wide audience. Stringent quality standards would also make image data more reproducible. A recent study of fMRI image data, for example, revealed that incomplete documentation and presentation of brain images led to nonreproducible results [ 10 , 11 ].

Here, we examined the quality of reporting and accessibility of image-based figures among papers published in top journals in plant sciences, cell biology, and physiology. Factors assessed include the use of scale bars, explanations of symbols and labels, clear and accurate inset markings, and transparent reporting of the object or species and tissue shown in the figure. We also examined whether images and labels were accessible to readers with the most common form of color blindness [ 12 ]. Based on our results, we provide targeted recommendations about how scientists can create informative image-based figures that are accessible to a broad audience. These recommendations may also be used to establish quality standards for images deposited in emerging image data repositories.

Using a science of science approach to investigate current practices

This study was conducted as part of a participant-guided learn-by-doing course, in which eLife Community Ambassadors from around the world worked together to design, complete, and publish a meta-research study [ 13 ]. Participants in the 2018 Ambassadors program designed the study, developed screening and abstraction protocols, and screened papers to identify eligible articles (HJ, BA, SJB, VB, LHH, VI, SS, EMW). Participants in the 2019 Ambassadors program refined the data abstraction protocol, completed data abstraction and analysis, and prepared the figures and manuscript (AA, SA, TLA, IF, MAG, HL, SYM, MO, AV, KW, HJ, TLW).

To investigate current practices in image publishing, we selected 3 diverse fields of biology to increase generalizability. For each field, we examined papers published in April 2018 in the top 15 journals, which publish original research ( S1 – S3 Tables). All full-length original research articles that contained at least one photograph, microscope image, electron microscope image, or clinical image (MRI, ultrasound, X-ray, etc.) were included in the analysis ( S1 Fig ). Blots and computer-generated images were excluded, as some of the criteria assessed do not apply to these types of images. Two independent reviewers assessed each paper, according to the detailed data abstraction protocol (see methods and information deposited on the Open Science Framework (OSF) (RRID:SCR_017419) at https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/B5296 ) [ 14 ]. The repository also includes data, code, and figures.

Image analysis

First, we confirmed that images are common in the 3 biology subfields analyzed. More than half of the original research articles in the sample contained images (plant science: 68%, cell biology: 72%, physiology: 55%). Among the 580 papers that included images, microscope images were very common in all 3 fields (61% to 88%, Fig 1A ). Photographs were very common in plant sciences (86%), but less widespread in cell biology (38%) and physiology (17%). Electron microscope images were less common in all 3 fields (11% to 19%). Clinical images, such as X-rays, MRI or ultrasound, and other types of images were rare (2% to 9%).

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(A) Microscope images and photographs were common, whereas other types of images were used less frequently. ( B) Complete scale information was missing in more than half of the papers examined. Partial scale information indicates that scale information was presented in some figures, but not others, or that the authors reported magnification rather than including scale bars on the image. ( C) Problems with labeling and describing insets are common. Totals may not be exactly 100% due to rounding.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001161.g001

Scale information is essential to interpret biological images. Approximately half of papers in physiology (49%) and cell biology (55%) and 28% of plant science papers provided scale bars with dimensions (in the figure or legend) for all images in the paper ( Fig 1B , S4 Table ). Approximately one-third of papers in each field contained incomplete scale information, such as reporting magnification or presenting scale information for a subset of images. Twenty-four percent of physiology papers, 10% of cell biology papers, and 29% of plant sciences papers contained no scale information on any image.

Some publications use insets to show the same image at 2 different scales (cell biology papers: 40%, physiology: 17%, plant sciences: 12%). In this case, the authors should indicate the position of the high-magnification inset in the low-magnification image. The majority of papers in all 3 fields clearly and accurately marked the location of all insets (53% to 70%; Fig 1C , left panel); however, one-fifth of papers appeared to have marked the location of at least one inset incorrectly (17% to 22%). Clearly visible inset markings were missing for some or all insets in 13% to 28% of papers ( Fig 1C , left panel). Approximately half of papers (43% to 53%; Fig 1C , right panel) provided legend explanations or markings on the figure to clearly show that an inset was used, whereas this information was missing for some or all insets in the remaining papers.

Many images contain information in color. We sought to determine whether color images were accessible to readers with deuteranopia, the most common form of color blindness, by using the color blindness simulator Color Oracle ( https://colororacle.org/ , RRID: SCR_018400). We evaluated only images in which the authors selected the image colors (e.g., fluorescence microscopy). Papers without any colorblind accessible figures were uncommon (3% to 6%); however, 45% of cell biology papers and 21% to 24% of physiology and plant science papers contained some images that were inaccessible to readers with deuteranopia ( Fig 2A ). Seventeen percent to 34% of papers contained color annotations that were not visible to someone with deuteranopia.

(A) While many authors are using colors and labels that are visible to colorblind readers, the data show that improvement is needed. (B) Most papers explain colors in image-based figures; however, explanations are less common for the species and tissue or object shown, and labels and annotations. Totals may not be exactly 100% due to rounding.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001161.g002

Figure legends and, less often, titles typically provide essential information needed to interpret an image. This text provides information on the specimen and details of the image, while also explaining labels and annotations used to highlight structures or colors. Fifty-seven percent of physiology papers, 48% of cell biology papers, and 20% of plant papers described the species and tissue or object shown completely. Five percent to 17% of papers did not provide any such information ( Fig 2B ). Approximately half of the papers (47% to 58%; Fig 1C , right panel) also failed or partially failed to adequately explain that insets were used. Annotations of structures were better explained. Two-thirds of papers across all 3 fields clearly stated the meaning of all image labels, while 18% to 24% of papers provided partial explanations. Most papers (73% to 83%) completely explained the image colors by stating what substance each color represented or naming the dyes or staining technique used.

Finally, we examined the number of papers that used optimal image presentation practices for all criteria assessed in the study. Twenty-eight (16%) physiology papers, 19 (12%) cell biology papers, and 6 (2%) plant sciences papers met all criteria for all image-based figures in the paper. In plant sciences and physiology, the most common problems were with scale bars, insets, and specifying in the legend the species and tissue or object shown. In cell biology, the most common problems were with insets, colorblind accessibility, and specifying in the legend the species and tissue or object shown.

Designing image-based figures: How can we improve?

Our results obtained by examining 580 papers from 3 fields provide us with unique insights into the quality of reporting and the accessibility of image-based figures. Our quantitative description of standard practices in image publication highlights opportunities to improve transparency and accessibility to readers from different backgrounds. We have therefore outlined specific actions that scientists can take when creating images, designing multipanel figures, annotating figures, and preparing figure legends.

Throughout the paper, we provide visual examples to illustrate each stage of the figure preparation process. Other elements are often omitted to focus readers’ attention on the step illustrated in the figure. For example, a figure that highlights best practices for displaying scale bars may not include annotations designed to explain key features of the image. When preparing image-based figures in scientific publications, readers should address all relevant steps in each figure. All steps described below (image cropping and insets, adding scale bars and annotation, choosing color channel appearances, figure panel layout) can be implemented with standard image processing software such as FIJI [ 15 ] (RRID:SCR_002285) and ImageJ2 [ 16 ] (RRID:SCR_003070), which are open source, free programs for bioimage analysis. A quick guide on how to do basic image processing for publications with FIJI is available in a recent cheat sheet publication [ 17 ], and a discussion forum and wiki are available for FIJI and ImageJ ( https://imagej.net/ ).

1. Choose a scale or magnification that fits your research question.

Scientists should select an image scale or magnification that allows readers to clearly see features needed to answer the research question. Fig 3A [ 18 ] shows Drosophila melanogaster at 3 different microscopic scales. The first focuses on the ovary tissue and might be used to illustrate the appearance of the tissue or show stages of development. The second focuses on a group of cells. In this example, the “egg chamber” cells show different nucleic acid distributions. The third example focuses on subcellular details in one cell, for example, to show finer detail of RNA granules or organelle shape.

(A) Magnification and display detail of images should permit readers to see features related to the main message that the image is intended to convey. This may be the organism, tissue, cell, or a subcellular level. Microscope images [ 18 ] show D . melanogaster ovary (A1), ovarian egg chamber cells (A2), and a detail in egg chamber cell nuclei (A3). (B ) Insets or zoomed-in areas are useful when 2 different scales are needed to allow readers to see essential features. It is critical to indicate the origin of the inset in the full-scale image. Poor and clear examples are shown. Example images were created based on problems observed by reviewers. Images show B1, B2, B3, B5: Protostelium aurantium amoeba fed on germlings of Aspergillus fumigatus D141-GFP (green) fungal hyphae, dead fungal material stained with propidium iodide (red), and acidic compartments of amoeba marked with LysoTracker Blue DND-22 dye (blue); B4: Lendrum-stained human lung tissue (Haraszti, Public Health Image Library); B6: fossilized Orobates pabsti [ 19 ].

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001161.g003

When both low and high magnifications are necessary for one image, insets are used to show a small portion of the image at higher magnification ( Fig 3B , [ 19 ]). The inset location must be accurately marked in the low-magnification image. We observed that the inset position in the low-magnification image was missing, unclear, or incorrectly placed in approximately one-third of papers. Inset positions should be clearly marked by lines or regions of interest in a high-contrast color, usually black or white. Insets may also be explained in the figure legend. Care must be taken when preparing figures outside vector graphics suits, as insert positions may move during file saving or export.

2. Include a clearly labeled scale bar.

Scale information allows audiences to quickly understand the size of features shown in images. This is especially important for microscopic images where we have no intuitive understanding of scale. Scale information for photographs should be considered when capturing images as rulers are often placed into the frame. Our analysis revealed that 10% to 29% of papers screened failed to provide any scale information and that another third only provided incomplete scale information ( Fig 1B ). Scientists should consider the following points when displaying scale bars:

• Every image type needs a scale bar: Authors usually add scale bars to microscope images but often leave them out in photos and clinical images, possibly because these depict familiar objects such a human or plant. Missing scale bars, however, adversely affect reproducibility. A size difference of 20% in between a published study and the reader’s lab animals, for example, could impact study results by leading to an important difference in phenotype. Providing scale bars allows scientists to detect such discrepancies and may affect their interpretation of published work. Scale bars may not be a standard feature of image acquisition and processing software for clinical images. Authors may need to contact device manufacturers to determine the image size and add height and width labels.
• Scale bars and labels should be clearly visible: Short scale bars, thin scale bars, and scale bars in colors that are similar to the image color can easily be overlooked ( Fig 4 ). In multicolor images, it can be difficult to find a color that makes the scale bar stand out. Authors can solve this problem by placing the scale bar outside the image or onto a box with a more suitable background color.
• Annotate scale bar dimensions on the image: Stating the dimensions along with the scale bar allows readers to interpret the image more quickly. Despite this, dimensions were typically stated in the legend instead ( Fig 1B ), possibly a legacy of printing processes that discouraged text in images. Dimensions should be in high resolution and large enough to be legible. In our set, we came across small and/or low-resolution annotations that were illegible in electronic versions of the paper, even after zooming in. Scale bars that are visible on larger figures produced by authors may be difficult to read when the size of the figure is reduced to fit onto a journal page. Authors should carefully check page proofs to ensure that scale bars and dimensions are clearly visible.

Scale bars provide essential information about the size of objects, which orients readers and helps them to bridge the gap between the image and reality. Scales may be indicated by a known size indicator such as a human next to a tree, a coin next to a rock, or a tape measure next to a smaller structure. In microscope images, a bar of known length is included. Example images were created based on problems observed by reviewers. Poor scale bar examples (1 to 6), clear scale bar examples (7 to 12). Images 1, 4, 7: Microscope images of D . melanogaster nurse cell nuclei [ 18 ]; 2: Microscope image of Dictyostelium discoideum expressing Vps32-GFP (Vps32-green fluorescent protein shows broad signal in cells) and stained with dextran (spotted signal) after infection with conidia of Aspergillus fumigatus ; 3, 5, 8, 10: Electron microscope image of mouse pancreatic beta-islet cells (Andreas Müller); 6, 11: Microscope image of Lendrum-stained human lung tissue (Haraszti, Public Health Image Library); 9: Photo of Arabidopsis thaliana ; 12: Photograph of fossilized Orobates pabsti [ 19 ].

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001161.g004

3. Use color wisely in images.

Colors in images are used to display the natural appearance of an object or to visualize features with dyes and stains. In the scientific context, adapting colors is possible and may enhance readers’ understanding, while poor color schemes may distract or mislead. Images showing the natural appearance of a subject, specimen, or staining technique (e.g., images showing plant size and appearance, or histopathology images of fat tissue from mice on different diets) are generally presented in color ( Fig 5 ). Images showing electron microscope images are captured in black and white (“grayscale”) by default and may be kept in grayscale to leverage the good contrast resulting from a full luminescence spectrum.

Shown are examples of the types of images that one might find in manuscripts in the biological or biomedical sciences: photograph, fluorescent microscope images with 1 to 3 color hues/LUT, electron microscope images. The relative visibility is assessed in a colorblind rendering for deuteranopia, and in grayscale. Grayscale images offer the most contrast (1-color microscope image) but cannot show several structures in parallel (multicolor images, color photographs). Color combinations that are not colorblind accessible were used in rows 3 and 4 to illustrate the importance of colorblind simulation tests. Scale bars are not included in this figure, as they could not be added in a nondistracting way that would not detract from the overall message of the figure. Images show: Row 1: Darth Vader being attacked, Row 2: D . melanogaster salivary glands [ 18 ], Row 3: D . melanogaster egg chambers [ 18 ], Row 4: D . melanogaster nurse cell nuclei [ 18 ], and Row 5: mouse pancreatic beta-islet cells. LUT, lookup table.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001161.g005

In some instances, scientists can choose whether to show grayscale or color images. Assigning colors may be optional, even though it is the default setting in imaging programs. When showing only one color channel, scientists may consider presenting this channel in grayscale to optimally display fine details. This may include variations in staining intensity or fine structures. When opting for color, authors should use grayscale visibility tests ( Fig 6 ) to determine whether visibility is compromised. This can occur when dark colors, such as magenta, red, or blue, are shown on a black background.

The best contrast is achieved with grayscale images or dark hues on a light background (first row). Dark color hues, such as red and blue, on a dark background (last row), are least visible. Visibility can be tested with mock grayscale. Images show actin filaments in Dictyostelium discoideum (LifeAct-GFP). All images have the same scale. GFP, green fluorescent protein.

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4. Choose a colorblind accessible color palette.

Fluorescent images with merged color channels visualize the colocalization of different markers. While many readers find these images to be visually appealing and informative, these images are often inaccessible to colorblind coauthors, reviewers, editors, and readers. Deuteranopia, the most common form of colorblindness, affects up to 8% of men and 0.5% of women of northern European ancestry [ 12 ]. A study of articles published in top peripheral vascular disease journals revealed that 85% of papers with color maps and 58% of papers with heat maps used color palettes that were not colorblind safe [ 20 ]. We show that approximately half of cell biology papers, and one-third of physiology papers and plant science papers, contained images that were inaccessible to readers with deuteranopia. Scientists should consider the following points to ensure that images are accessible to colorblind readers.

• Select colorblind safe colors: Researchers should use colorblind safe color palettes for fluorescence and other images where color may be adjusted. Fig 7 illustrates how 4 different color combinations would look to viewers with different types of color blindness. Green and red are indistinguishable to readers with deuteranopia, whereas green and blue are indistinguishable to readers with tritanopia, a rare form of color blindness. Cyan and magenta are the best options, as these 2 colors look different to viewers with normal color vision, deuteranopia, or tritanopia. Green and magenta are also shown, as scientists often prefer to show colors close to the excitation value of the fluorescent dyes, which are often green and red.
• Display separate channels in addition to the merged image: Selecting a colorblind safe color palette becomes increasingly difficult as more colors are added. When the image includes 3 or more colors, authors are encouraged to show separate images for each channel, followed by the merged image ( Fig 8 ). Individual channels may be shown in grayscale to make it easier for readers to perceive variations in staining intensity.
• Use simulation tools to confirm that essential features are visible to colorblind viewers: Free tools, such as Color Oracle (RRID:SCR_018400), quickly simulate different forms of color blindness by adjusting the colors on the computer screen to simulate what a colorblind person would see. Scientists using FIJI (RRID:SCR002285) can select the “Simulate colorblindness” option in the “Color” menu under “Images.”

The figure illustrates how 4 possible color combinations for multichannel microscope images would appear to someone with normal color vision, the most common form of colorblindness (deuteranopia), and a rare form of color blindness (tritanopia). Some combinations that are accessible to someone with deuteranopia are not accessible to readers with tritanopia, for example, green/blue combinations. Microscope images show Dictyostelium discoideum expressing Vps32-GFP (Vps32-green fluorescent protein shows broad signal in cells) and stained with dextran (spotted signal) after infection with conidia of Aspergillus fumigatus . All images have the same scale. GFP, green fluorescent protein.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001161.g007

Images in the first row are not colorblind safe. Readers with the most common form of colorblindness would not be able to identify key features. Possible accessible solutions are shown: changing colors/LUTs to colorblind-friendly combinations, showing each channel in a separate image, showing colors in grayscale and inverting grayscale images to maximize contrast. Solutions 3 and 4 (show each channel in grayscale, or in inverted grayscale) are more informative than solutions 1 and 2. Regions of overlap are sometimes difficult to see in merged images without split channels. When splitting channels, scientists often use colors that have low contrast, as explained in Fig 6 (e.g., red or blue on black). Microscope images show D . melanogaster egg chambers (2 colors) and nurse cell nuclei (3 colors) [ 18 ]. All images of egg chambers and nurse cells respectively have the same scale. LUT, lookup table.

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5. Design the figure.

Figures often contain more than one panel. Careful planning is needed to convey a clear message, while ensuring that all panels fit together and follow a logical order. A planning table ( Fig 9A ) helps scientists to determine what information is needed to answer the research question. The table outlines the objectives, types of visualizations required, and experimental groups that should appear in each panel. A planning table template is available on OSF [ 14 ]. After completing the planning table, scientists should sketch out the position of panels and the position of images, graphs, and titles within each panel ( Fig 9B ). Audiences read a page either from top to bottom and/or from left to right. Selecting one reading direction and arranging panels in rows or columns helps with figure planning. Using enough white space to separate rows or columns will visually guide the reader through the figure. The authors can then assemble the figure based on the draft sketch.

Planning tables and layout sketches are useful tools to efficiently design figures that address the research question. ( A) Planning tables allow scientists to select and organize elements needed to answer the research question addressed by the figure. ( B) Layout sketches allow scientists to design a logical layout for all panels listed in the planning table and ensure that there is adequate space for all images and graphs.

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6. Annotate the figure.

Annotations with text, symbols, or lines allow readers from many different backgrounds to rapidly see essential features, interpret images, and gain insight. Unfortunately, scientists often design figures for themselves, rather than their audience [ 7 ]. Examples of annotations are shown in Fig 10 . Table 1 describes important factors to consider for each annotation type.

Text descriptions alone are often insufficient to clearly point to a structure or region in an image. Arrows and arrowheads, lines, letters, and dashed enclosures can help if overlaid on the respective part of the image. Microscope images show D . melanogaster egg chambers [ 18 ], with the different labeling techniques in use. The table provides an overview of their applicability and common pitfalls. All images have the same scale.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001161.t001

When adding annotations to an image, scientists should consider the following steps.

• Choose the right amount of labeling. Fig 11 shows 3 levels of annotation. The barely annotated image ( Fig 11A ) is only accessible to scientists already familiar with the object and technique, whereas the heavily annotated version ( Fig 11C ) contains numerous annotations that obstruct the image and a legend that is time consuming to interpret. Fig 11B is more readable; annotations of a few key features are shown, and the explanations appear right below the image for easy interpretation. Explanations of labels are often placed in the figure legend. Alternating between examining the figure and legend is time consuming, especially when the legend and figure are on different pages. Fig 11D shows one option for situations where extensive annotations are required to explain a complex image. An annotated image is placed as a legend next to the original image. A semitransparent white layer mutes the image to allow annotations to stand out.
• Use abbreviations cautiously: Abbreviations are commonly used for image and figure annotation to save space but inevitably require more effort from the reader. Abbreviations are often ambiguous, especially across fields. Authors should run a web search for the abbreviation [ 21 ]. If the intended meaning is not a top result, authors should refrain from using the abbreviation or clearly define the abbreviation on the figure itself, even if it is already defined elsewhere in the manuscript. Note that in Fig 11 , abbreviations have been written out below the image to reduce the number of legend entries.
• Explain colors and stains: Explanations of colors and stains were missing in around 20% of papers. Fig 12 illustrates several problematic practices observed in our dataset, as well as solutions for clearly explaining what each color represents. This figure uses fluorescence images as an example; however, we also observed many histology images in which authors did not mention which stain was used. Authors should describe how stains affect the tissue shown or use annotations to show staining patterns of specific structures. This allows readers who are unfamiliar with the stain to interpret the image.
• Ensure that annotations are accessible to colorblind readers: Confirming that labels or annotations are visible to colorblind readers is important for both color and grayscale images ( Fig 13 ). Up to one-third of papers in our dataset contained annotations or labels that would not have been visible to someone with deuteranopia. This occurred because the annotations blended in with the background (e.g., red arrows on green plants) or the authors use the same symbol in colors that are indistinguishable to someone with deuteranopia to mark different features. Fig 13 illustrates how to annotate a grayscale image so that it is accessible to color blind readers. Using text to describe colors is also problematic for colorblind readers. This problem can be alleviated by using colored symbols in the legend or by using distinctly shaped annotations such as open versus closed arrows, thin versus wide lines, or dashed versus solid lines. Color blindness simulators help in determining whether annotations are accessible to all readers.

Annotations help to orient the audience but may also obstruct parts of the image. Authors must find the right balance between too few and too many annotations. (1) Example with no annotations. Readers cannot determine what is shown. (2) Example with a few annotations to orient readers to key structures. (3) Example with many annotations, which obstruct parts of the image. The long legend below the figure is confusing. (4) Example shows a solution for situations where many annotations are needed to explain the image. An annotated version is placed next to an unannotated version of the image for comparison. The legend below the image helps readers to interpret the image, without having to refer to the figure legend. Note the different requirements for space. Electron microscope images show mouse pancreatic beta-islet cells.

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Cells and their structures are almost all transparent. Every dye, stain, and fluorescent label therefore should be clearly explained to the audience. Labels should be colorblind safe. Large labels that stand out against the background are easy to read. Authors can make figures easier to interpret by placing the color label close to the structure; color labels should only be placed in the figure legend when this is not possible. Example images were created based on problems observed by reviewers. Microscope images show D . melanogaster egg chambers stained with the DNA dye DAPI (4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole) and probe for a specific mRNA species [ 18 ]. All images have the same scale.

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(1) The annotations displayed in the first image are inaccessible to colorblind individuals, as shown with the visibility test below. This example was created based on problems observed by reviewers. (2, 3) Two colorblind safe alternative annotations, in color (2) and in grayscale (3). The bottom row shows a test rendering for deuteranopia colorblindness. Note that double-encoding of different hues and different shapes (e.g., different letters, arrow shapes, or dashed/nondashed lines) allows all audiences to interpret the annotations. Electron microscope images show mouse pancreatic beta-cell islet cells. All images have the same scale.

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7. Prepare figure legends.

Each figure and legend are meant to be self-explanatory and should allow readers to quickly assess a paper or understand complex studies that combine different methodologies or model systems. To date, there are no guidelines for figure legends for images, as the scope and length of legends varies across journals and disciplines. Some journals require legends to include details on object, size, methodology, or sample size, while other journals require a minimalist approach and mandate that information should not be repeated in subsequent figure legends.

Our data suggest that important information needed to interpret images was regularly missing from the figure or figure legend. This includes the species and tissue type, or object shown in the figure, clear explanations of all labels, annotations and colors, and markings or legend entries denoting insets. Presenting this information on the figure itself is more efficient for the reader; however, any details that are not marked in the figure should be explained in the legend.

While not reporting species and tissue information in every figure legend may be less of an issue for papers that examine a single species and tissue, this is a major problem when a study includes many species and tissues, which may be presented in different panels of the same figure. Additionally, the scientific community is increasingly developing automated data mining tools, such as the Source Data tool, to collect and synthesize information from figures and other parts of scientific papers. Unlike humans, these tools cannot piece together information scattered throughout the paper to determine what might be shown in a particular figure panel. Even for human readers, this process wastes time. Therefore, we recommend that authors present information in a clear and accessible manner, even if some information may be repeated for studies with simple designs.

A flood of images is published every day in scientific journals and the number is continuously increasing. Of these, around 4% likely contain intentionally or accidentally duplicated images [ 3 ]. Our data show that, in addition, most papers show images that are not fully interpretable due to issues with scale markings, annotation, and/or color. This affects scientists’ ability to interpret, critique, and build upon the work of others. Images are also increasingly submitted to image archives to make image data widely accessible and permit future reanalyses. A substantial fraction of images that are neither human nor machine-readable lowers the potential impact of such archives. Based on our data examining common problems with published images, we provide a few simple recommendations, with examples illustrating good practices. We hope that these recommendations will help authors to make their published images legible and interpretable.

Limitations: While most results were consistent across the 3 subfields of biology, findings may not be generalizable to other fields. Our sample included the top 15 journals that publish original research for each field. Almost all journals were indexed in PubMed. Results may not be generalizable to journals that are unindexed, have low impact factors, or are not published in English. Data abstraction was performed manually due to the complexity of the assessments. Error rates were 5% for plant sciences, 4% for physiology, and 3% for cell biology. Our assessments focused on factors that affect readability of image-based figures in scientific publications. Future studies may include assessments of raw images and meta-data to examine factors that affect reproducibility, such as contrast settings, background filtering, and processing history.

Actions journals can take to make image-based figures more transparent and easier to interpret

The role of journals in improving the quality of reporting and accessibility of image-based figures should not be overlooked. There are several actions that journals might consider.

• Screen manuscripts for figures that are not colorblind safe: Open source automated screening tools [ 22 ] may help journals to efficiently identify common color maps that are not colorblind safe.
• Update journal policies: We encourage journal editors to update policies regarding colorblind accessibility, scale bars, and other factors outlined in this manuscript. Importantly, policy changes should be accompanied by clear plans for implementation and enforcement. Meta-research suggests that changing journal policy, without enforcement or implementation plans, has limited effects on author behavior. Amending journal policies to require authors to report research resource identifiers (RRIDs), for example, increases the number of papers reporting RRIDs by 1% [ 23 ]. In a study of life sciences articles published in Nature journals, the percentage of animal studies reporting the Landis 4 criteria (blinding, randomization, sample size calculation, exclusions) increased from 0% to 16.4% after new guidelines were released [ 24 ]. In contrast, a randomized controlled trial of animal studies submitted to PLOS ONE demonstrated that randomizing authors to complete the ARRIVE checklist during submission did not improve reporting [ 25 ]. Some improvements in reporting of confidence intervals, sample size justification, and inclusion and exclusion criteria were noted after Psychological Science introduced new policies [ 26 ], although this may have been partially due to widespread changes in the field. A joint editorial series published in the Journal of Physiology and British Journal of Pharmacology did not improve the quality of data presentation or statistical reporting [ 27 ].
• Reevaluate limits on the number of figures: Limitations on the number of figures originally stemmed from printing costs calculations, which are becoming increasingly irrelevant as scientific publishing moves online. Unintended consequences of these policies include the advent of large, multipanel figures. These figures are often especially difficult to interpret because the legend appears on a different page, or the figure combines images addressing different research questions.
• Reduce or eliminate page charges for color figures: As journals move online, policies designed to offset the increased cost of color printing are no longer needed. The added costs may incentivize authors to use grayscale in cases where color would be beneficial.
• Encourage authors to explain labels or annotations in the figure, rather than in the legend: This is more efficient for readers.
• Encourage authors to share image data in public repositories: Open data benefits authors and the scientific community [ 28 – 30 ].

How can the scientific community improve image-based figures?

The role of scientists in the community is multifaceted. As authors, scientists should familiarize themselves with guidelines and recommendations, such as ours provided above. As reviewers, scientists should ask authors to improve erroneous or uninformative image-based figures. As instructors, scientists should ensure that bioimaging and image data handling is taught during undergraduate or graduate courses, and support existing initiatives such as NEUBIAS (Network of EUropean BioImage AnalystS) [ 31 ] that aim to increase training opportunities in bioimage analysis.

Scientists are also innovators. As such, they should support emerging image data archives, which may expand to automatically source images from published figures. Repositories for other types of data are already widespread; however, the idea of image repositories has only recently gained traction [ 32 ]. Existing image databases, which are mainly used for raw image data and meta-data, include the Allen Brain Atlas, the Image Data Resource [ 33 ], and the emerging BioImage Archives [ 32 ]. Springer Nature encourages authors to submit imaging data to the Image Data Resource [ 33 ]. While scientists have called for common quality standards for archived images and meta-data [ 32 ], such standards have not been defined, implemented, or taught. Examining standard practices for reporting images in scientific publications, as outlined here, is one strategy for establishing common quality standards.

In the future, it is possible that each image published electronically in a journal or submitted to an image data repository will follow good practice guidelines and will be accompanied by expanded “meta-data” or “alt-text/attribute” files. Alt-text is already published in html to provide context if an image cannot be accessed (e.g., by blind readers). Similarly, images in online articles and deposited in archives could contain essential information in a standardized format. The information could include the main objective of the figure, specimen information, ideally with RRID [ 34 ], specimen manipulation (dissection, staining, RRID for dyes and antibodies used), as well as the imaging method including essential items from meta-files of the microscope software, information about image processing and adjustments, information about scale, annotations, insets, and colors shown, and confirmation that the images are truly representative.

Conclusions

Our meta-research study of standard practices for presenting images in 3 fields highlights current shortcomings in publications. Pubmed indexes approximately 800,000 new papers per year, or 2,200 papers per day ( https://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/index_stats_comp.html ). Twenty-three percent [ 1 ], or approximately 500 papers per day, contain images. Our survey data suggest that most of these papers will have deficiencies in image presentation, which may affect legibility and interpretability. These observations lead to targeted recommendations for improving the quality of published images. Our recommendations are available as a slide set via the OSF and can be used in teaching best practice to avoid misleading or uninformative image-based figures. Our analysis underscores the need for standardized image publishing guidelines. Adherence to such guidelines will allow the scientific community to unlock the full potential of image collections in the life sciences for current and future generations of researchers.

Systematic review

We examined original research articles that were published in April of 2018 in the top 15 journals that publish original research for each of 3 different categories (physiology, plant science, cell biology). Journals for each category were ranked according to 2016 impact factors listed for the specified categories in Journal Citation Reports. Journals that only publish review articles or that did not publish an April issue were excluded. We followed all relevant aspects of the PRISMA guidelines [ 35 ]. Items that only apply to meta-analyses or are not relevant to literature surveys were not followed. Ethical approval was not required.

Search strategy

Articles were identified through a PubMed search, as all journals were PubMed indexed. Electronic search results were verified by comparison with the list of articles published in April issues on the journal website. The electronic search used the following terms:

Physiology: ("Journal of pineal research"[Journal] AND 3[Issue] AND 64[Volume]) OR ("Acta physiologica (Oxford, England)"[Journal] AND 222[Volume] AND 4[Issue]) OR ("The Journal of physiology"[Journal] AND 596[Volume] AND (7[Issue] OR 8[Issue])) OR (("American journal of physiology. Lung cellular and molecular physiology"[Journal] OR "American journal of physiology. Endocrinology and metabolism"[Journal] OR "American journal of physiology. Renal physiology"[Journal] OR "American journal of physiology. Cell physiology"[Journal] OR "American journal of physiology. Gastrointestinal and liver physiology"[Journal]) AND 314[Volume] AND 4[Issue]) OR (“American journal of physiology. Heart and circulatory physiology”[Journal] AND 314[Volume] AND 4[Issue]) OR ("The Journal of general physiology"[Journal] AND 150[Volume] AND 4[Issue]) OR ("Journal of cellular physiology"[Journal] AND 233[Volume] AND 4[Issue]) OR ("Journal of biological rhythms"[Journal] AND 33[Volume] AND 2[Issue]) OR ("Journal of applied physiology (Bethesda, Md.: 1985)"[Journal] AND 124[Volume] AND 4[Issue]) OR ("Frontiers in physiology"[Journal] AND ("2018/04/01"[Date—Publication]: "2018/04/30"[Date—Publication])) OR ("The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity"[Journal] AND ("2018/04/01"[Date—Publication]: "2018/04/30"[Date—Publication])).

Plant science: ("Nature plants"[Journal] AND 4[Issue] AND 4[Volume]) OR ("Molecular plant"[Journal] AND 4[Issue] AND 11[Volume]) OR ("The Plant cell"[Journal] AND 4[Issue] AND 30[Volume]) OR ("Plant biotechnology journal"[Journal] AND 4[Issue] AND 16[Volume]) OR ("The New phytologist"[Journal] AND (1[Issue] OR 2[Issue]) AND 218[Volume]) OR ("Plant physiology"[Journal] AND 4[Issue] AND 176[Volume]) OR ("Plant, cell & environment"[Journal] AND 4[Issue] AND 41[Volume]) OR ("The Plant journal: for cell and molecular biology"[Journal] AND (1[Issue] OR 2[Issue]) AND 94[Volume]) OR ("Journal of experimental botany"[Journal] AND (8[Issue] OR 9[Issue] OR 10[Issue]) AND 69[Volume]) OR ("Plant & cell physiology"[Journal] AND 4[Issue] AND 59[Volume]) OR ("Molecular plant pathology"[Journal] AND 4[Issue] AND 19[Volume]) OR ("Environmental and experimental botany"[Journal] AND 148[Volume]) OR ("Molecular plant-microbe interactions: MPMI"[Journal] AND 4[Issue] AND 31[Volume]) OR (“Frontiers in plant science”[Journal] AND ("2018/04/01"[Date—Publication]: "2018/04/30"[Date—Publication])) OR (“The Journal of ecology” ("2018/04/01"[Date—Publication]: "2018/04/30"[Date—Publication])).

Cell biology: ("Cell"[Journal] AND (2[Issue] OR 3[Issue]) AND 173[Volume]) OR ("Nature medicine"[Journal] AND 24[Volume] AND 4[Issue]) OR ("Cancer cell"[Journal] AND 33[Volume] AND 4[Issue]) OR ("Cell stem cell"[Journal] AND 22[Volume] AND 4[Issue]) OR ("Nature cell biology"[Journal] AND 20[Volume] AND 4[Issue]) OR ("Cell metabolism"[Journal] AND 27[Volume] AND 4[Issue]) OR ("Science translational medicine"[Journal] AND 10[Volume] AND (435[Issue] OR 436[Issue] OR 437[Issue] OR 438[Issue])) OR ("Cell research"[Journal] AND 28[Volume] AND 4[Issue]) OR ("Molecular cell"[Journal] AND 70[Volume] AND (1[Issue] OR 2[Issue])) OR("Nature structural & molecular biology"[Journal] AND 25[Volume] AND 4[Issue]) OR ("The EMBO journal"[Journal] AND 37[Volume] AND (7[Issue] OR 8[Issue])) OR ("Genes & development"[Journal] AND 32[Volume] AND 7–8[Issue]) OR ("Developmental cell"[Journal] AND 45[Volume] AND (1[Issue] OR 2[Issue])) OR ("Current biology: CB"[Journal] AND 28[Volume] AND (7[Issue] OR 8[Issue])) OR ("Plant cell"[Journal] AND 30[Volume] AND 4[Issue]).

Screening for each article was performed by 2 independent reviewers (Physiology: TLW, SS, EMW, VI, KW, MO; Plant science: TLW, SJB; Cell biology: EW, SS) using Rayyan software (RRID:SCR_017584), and disagreements were resolved by consensus. A list of articles was uploaded into Rayyan. Reviewers independently examined each article and marked whether the article was included or excluded, along with the reason for exclusion. Both reviewers screened all articles published in each journal between April 1 and April 30, 2018, to identify full length, original research articles ( S1 – S3 Tables, S1 Fig ) published in the print issue of the journal. Articles for online journals that do not publish print issues were included if the publication date was between April 1 and April 30, 2018. Articles were excluded if they were not original research articles, or if an accepted version of the paper was posted as an “in press” or “early release” publication; however, the final version did not appear in the print version of the April issue. Articles were included if they contained at least one eligible image, such as a photograph, an image created using a microscope or electron microscope, or an image created using a clinical imaging technology such as ultrasound or MRI. Blot images were excluded, as many of the criteria in our abstraction protocol cannot easily be applied to blots. Computer generated images, graphs, and data figures were also excluded. Papers that did not contain any eligible images were excluded.

Abstraction

All abstractors completed a training set of 25 articles before abstracting data. Data abstraction for each article was performed by 2 independent reviewers (Physiology: AA, AV; Plant science: MO, TLA, SA, KW, MAG, IF; Cell biology: IF, AA, AV, KW, MAG). When disagreements could not be resolved by consensus between the 2 reviewers, ratings were assigned after a group review of the paper. Eligible manuscripts were reviewed in detail to evaluate the following questions according to a predefined protocol (available at: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/B5296 ) [ 14 ]. Supplemental files were not examined, as supplemental images may not be held to the same peer review standards as those in the manuscript.

The following items were abstracted:

• Types of images included in the paper (photograph, microscope image, electron microscope image, image created using a clinical imaging technique such as ultrasound or MRI, other types of images)
• Did the paper contain appropriately labeled scale bars for all images?
• Were all insets clearly and accurately marked?
• Were all insets clearly explained in the legend?
• Is the species and tissue, object, or cell line name clearly specified in the figure or legend for all images in the paper?
• Are any annotations, arrows, or labels clearly explained for all images in the paper?
• Among images where authors can control the colors shown (e.g., fluorescence microscopy), are key features of the images visible to someone with the most common form of colorblindness (deuteranopia)?
• If the paper contains colored labels, are these labels visible to someone with the most common form of color blindness (deuteranopia)?
• Are colors in images explained either on the image or within the legend?

Questions 7 and 8 were assessed by using Color Oracle [ 36 ] (RRID:SCR_018400) to simulate the effects of deuteranopia.

Verification

Ten percent of articles in each field were randomly selected for verification abstraction, to ensure that abstractors in different fields were following similar procedures. Data were abstracted by a single abstractor (TLW). The question on species and tissue was excluded from verification abstraction for articles in cell biology and plant sciences, as the verification abstractor lacked the field-specific expertise needed to assess this question. Results from the verification abstractor were compared with consensus results from the 2 independent abstractors for each paper, and discrepancies were resolved through discussion. Error rates were calculated as the percentage of responses for which the abstractors’ response was incorrect. Error rates were 5% for plant sciences, 4% for physiology, and 3% for cell biology.

Data processing and creation of figures

Data are presented as n (%). Summary statistics were calculated using Python (RRID:SCR_008394, version 3.6.9, libraries NumPy 1.18.5 and Matplotlib 3.2.2). Charts were prepared with a Python-based Jupyter Notebook (Jupyter-client, RRID:SCR_018413 [ 37 ], Python version 3.6.9, RRID:SCR_008394, libraries NumPy 1.18.5 [ 38 ], and Matplotlib 3.2.2 [ 39 ]) and assembled into figures with vector graphic software. Example images were previously published or generously donated by the manuscript authors as indicated in the figure legends. Image acquisition was described in references ( D . melanogaster images [ 18 ], mouse pancreatic beta islet cells: A. Müller personal communication, and Orobates pabsti [ 19 ]). Images were cropped, labeled, and color-adjusted with FIJI [ 15 ] (RRID:SCR_002285) and assembled with vector-graphic software. Colorblind and grayscale rendering of images was done using Color Oracle [ 36 ] (RRID:SCR_018400). All poor and clear images presented here are “mock examples” prepared based on practices observed during data abstraction.

Supporting information

S1 fig. flow chart of study screening and selection process..

This flow chart illustrates the number of included and excluded journals or articles, along with reasons for exclusion, at each stage of the study.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001161.s001

S1 Table. Number of articles examined by journal in physiology.

Values are n, or n (% of all articles). Screening was performed to exclude articles that were not full-length original research articles (e.g., reviews, editorials, perspectives, commentaries, letters to the editor, short communications, etc.), were not published in April 2018, or did not include eligible images. AJP, American Journal of Physiology.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001161.s002

S2 Table. Number of articles examined by journal in plant science.

Values are n, or n (% of all articles). Screening was performed to exclude articles that were not full-length original research articles (e.g., reviews, editorials, perspectives, commentaries, letters to the editor, short communications, etc.), were not published in April 2018, or did not include eligible images. *This journal was also included on the cell biology list (Table S3). **No articles from the Journal of Ecology were screened as the journal did not publish an April 2018 issue.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001161.s003

S3 Table. Number of articles examined by journal in cell biology.

Values are n, or n (% of all articles). Screening was performed to exclude articles that were not full-length original research articles (e.g., reviews, editorials, perspectives, commentaries, letters to the editor, short communications, etc.), were not published in April 2018, or did not include eligible images. *This journal was also included on the plant science list (Table S2).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001161.s004

S4 Table. Scale information in papers.

Values are percent of papers.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001161.s005

Acknowledgments

We thank the eLife Community Ambassadors program for facilitating this work, and Andreas Müller and John A. Nyakatura for generously sharing example images. Falk Hillmann and Thierry Soldati provided the amoeba strains used for imaging. Some of the early career researchers who participated in this research would like to thank their principal investigators and mentors for supporting their efforts to improve science.

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• 37. Kluyver T, Ragan-Kelley B, Pérez F and Granger B. Jupyter Notebooks—a publishing format for reproducible computational workflows. In: Scmidt F. L. a. B., ed. Positioning and Power in Academic Publishing : Players, Agents and Agendas Netherlands: IOS Press; 2016.

Frequently asked questions

How do i include an image in my paper in chicago style.

In Chicago style , when you don’t just refer to an image but actually include it in your (research) paper , the image should be formatted as a figure. Place the figure before or after the first paragraph where it is mentioned. Refer to figures by their numbers in the text (e.g., “see fig. 1”).

Below the figure, place a caption providing the figure number followed by a period (e.g., “Figure 1.”), a reference to the source (if you didn’t create the image yourself), and any relevant information to help the reader understand the image (if needed).

The caption is single-spaced and left-aligned, and followed by a blank line before the continuation of the main text.

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .

Frequently asked questions: Chicago Style

The director should always be listed in the author position in a Chicago film citation , followed by the label “director.” Other contributors to the film (actors, cinematographers, writers, composers, producers, etc.) may be listed after the film title, e.g., “Featuring Willem Dafoe and Robert Pattinson. Cinematography by Jarin Blaschke.”

Only the contributors relevant to your discussion of the film should be added. You might mention actors whose performances are discussed in detail, or the composer if the use of music in the film is examined. It’s also fine to mention no contributors other than the director, if none are relevant to your discussion.

In Chicago style , when a source does not include page numbers but you still want to point the reader to a specific point within it, an alternative locator should be used in your Chicago footnote or Chicago in-text citation . With audiovisual sources (e.g., films , videos , podcasts, songs), this is a timestamp, e.g. 1:15:28.

Webpages are usually short enough that no specific locator is needed. However, for a particularly long web page, you can use a subheading from the page, in quotation marks , e.g., “Citing Sources with Notes.”

Note that page numbers should be left out of newspaper citations , even when they are available. This is because page numbers can vary between different editions of a newspaper.

In a Chicago style footnote , list up to three authors. If there are more than three, name only the first author, followed by “ et al. ”

In the bibliography , list up to 10 authors. If there are more than 10, list the first seven followed by “et al.”

The same rules apply in Chicago author-date style .

When an online source does not list a publication date, replace it with an access date in your Chicago footnotes and your bibliography :

If you are using author-date in-text citations , or if the source was not accessed online, replace the date with “n.d.”

In a Chicago footnote citation , when the author of a source is unknown (as is often the case with websites ), start the citation with the title in a full note. In short notes and bibliography entries, list the organization that published it as the author.

In Chicago author-date style , treat the organization as author in your in-text citations and reference list.

Chicago format doesn’t require you to use any specific font, as long as you choose something readable. A good standard choice is 12 pt Times New Roman.

• A reference list is used with Chicago author-date citations .
• A bibliography is used with Chicago footnote citations .

Both present the exact same information; the only difference is the placement of the year in source citations:

• In a reference list entry, the publication year appears directly after the author’s name.
• In a bibliography entry, the year appears near the end of the entry (the exact placement depends on the source type).

There are also other types of bibliography that work as stand-alone texts, such as a Chicago annotated bibliography .

Turabian style is a version of Chicago style designed specifically for students and researchers. It follows most Chicago conventions, but also adds extra guidelines for formatting research papers , theses and dissertations .

More information can be found in A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations by Kate L. Turabian, now in its ninth edition.

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the relevant page.  Endnotes appear in a list at the end of the text, just before the reference list or bibliography. Don’t mix footnotes and endnotes in the same document: choose one or the other and use them consistently.

In Chicago notes and bibliography style , you can use either footnotes or endnotes, and citations follow the same format in either case.

In APA and MLA style , footnotes or endnotes are not used for citations, but they can be used to provide additional information.

In Chicago author-date style , your text must include a reference list . It appears at the end of your paper and gives full details of every source you cited.

In notes and bibliography style, you use Chicago style footnotes to cite sources; a bibliography is optional but recommended. If you don’t include one, be sure to use a full note for the first citation of each source.

In Chicago notes and bibliography style , the usual standard is to use a full note for the first citation of each source, and short notes for any subsequent citations of the same source.

However, your institution’s guidelines may differ from the standard rule. In some fields, you’re required to use a full note every time, whereas in some other fields you can use short notes every time, as long as all sources are listed in your bibliography . If you’re not sure, check with your instructor.

When a source has four or more authors , your in-text citation or Chicago footnote should give only the first author’s name followed by “ et al. ” (Latin for “and others”). This makes your citations more concise.

In your bibliography or reference list , when a source has more than 10 authors, list the first seven followed by “et al.” Otherwise, list every author.

Page numbers should be included in your Chicago in-text citations when:

• You’re quoting from the text.
• You’re paraphrasing a particular passage.
• You’re referring to information from a specific section.

When you’re referring to the overall argument or general content of a source, it’s unnecessary to include page numbers.

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Finding images.

Digital Collections at St. Lawrence University

A set of digital collections containing images from items in the University's Special Collections, Richard F. Brush Art Gallery along with faculty and student scholarship.

Google Image Search

Google provides both basic and advanced image searching for over 1 billion images. Google's  Advanced Image Search  searching allows you to limit results based on usage rights, by size and quite a bit more - as does the  Search Tools  button.

Digital Public Library of America  (DPLA)

Provides for searching across a massive number of digital collections located in libraries, archives and museums throughout the United States.  Includes georeferences and timelines.

30 Million items from a range of Europe's galleries, archives, libraries and museums.

Flickr Commons

Flickr provides a search specifically designed to locate works that are offered under the Creative Commons license.

Search.creativecommons.org  offers convenient access to search services provided by other independent organizations. Note that selecting different search options within the result list—particularly Image search for Google and Yahoo—may lead to the inclusion of results which are not Creative Commons licensed.

American Memory - Library of Congress

Contains over 5 million images and other archived materials relating to American culture and history. Guidelines for citing and reproducing images are also included.

Wikimedia Commons

Associated with the Wikipedia, Wikimedia Commons searches the images available in the online Wikipedia encyclopedia. Click on an image to view copyright restrictions.

National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration

• Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory
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• Operational Significant Event Imagery
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• Public Domain Tornado Images
• Tornados - National Severe Storms Laboratory Album

National Park Service

• Digital Image Archive
• Historic Photograph Collection

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

• Natural Hazzards
• Arizona Meteor Crater
• NASA Images
• Photo Gallery
• Visible Earth  - a searchable directory of images, visualizations, and animations of the Earth

U.S. Geological Survey Photographic Library The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Central Regional Library maintains a collection of over 400,000 photographs taken during geologic studies of the United States and its territories from 1868 to the present.These images provide a visual history of the discovery, development, and sciences of the United States and its Geological Survey. Some photographs have been used in USGS publications, but most have never been published.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service   National Image Library  is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video and that are in the public domain.

Bioscience Imagebank  This consists of freely available images contributed by academics, researchers, Learned Societies, industry and individuals with rights cleared for educational purposes.

 Additional Image Databases and Websites -  derived from Skidmore Library's list :

• Archives of American Art Image Gallery
• Art Resource
• Artcyclopedia
• Digitized Images from the Bodleian Libraries Special Collections
• Galaxy of Images
• Google Images
• LIFE Photo Archive
• NYPL Digital Gallery
• Perseus Digital Library
• VADS: The Online Resource for Visual Arts
• Visual Dictionary Online
• Web Gallery of Art
• Work Projects Administration (WPA) Poster Collection

Finding History Map Images

Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection The University of Texas' extensive collection of printable maps - both modern and historical. David Rumsey Map Collection The David Rumsey Historical Map Collection has over 10,000 maps online. The collection focuses on rare 18th and 19th century North and South America maps and other cartographic materials.

A to Z Maps This is also the worlds largest subscription-based database of proprietary, royalty-free world, continent, country, and state maps. Included in the 145,000+ maps are: political maps, physical maps, outline maps, population maps, precipitation maps, climate maps, and other thematic maps. GIS data for states, countries, and global levels are also available in shapefile, e00, and mdb formats.

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Can You Put Pictures in a Research Paper? (Answered!)

by  Antony W

July 6, 2022

The conventional format of a research paper doesn’t have room for pictures. However, that doesn’t mean you can’t include images in your assignment.

You can add non-textual elements such as pictures, charts, vectors, and graphs in your research paper provided they’re relevant to the research question. Such elements are useful because they can make your work not only visually appealing but also more descriptive.  

To be clear, it’s not necessary to include pictures in your research paper. So your professor won’t penalize you or under grade your work if you fail to include non-textual elements in the assignment.

Sometimes, though, it can be very useful to include pictures in your research, and for a number of reasons.

Can a You Put Pictures in a Research Paper? (4 Reasons to Include Them) 

1. Non-textual Elements are Useful for Showing Examples 

The consensus in research paper writing is that students must support claims that they make using logical reason, evidence, and examples. Pictures, and especially illustration and charts, can come in handy in this kind of a scenario. 

Say you’re investigating the effect of a drug on bacterial, for example. In this case, you can use a graph to demonstrate a before and after effect of the experiment.

2. Pictures Help to Explain a Process 

Some research papers involve complex process that you can’t easily explain in words alone. Therefore, adding an illustration can go a long way to make your ideas clear to the audience reading your paper.

3. Pictures Help to Clarify Terms in Research Paper Assignments

A chart or a scheme can help you to explain terms that would be otherwise difficult to explain in words. By using an image in such a scenario, you make terms structured and very easy to understand.  

4. Pictures Can Motivate Readers to Keep Reading

Research papers are long assignments, and sometimes they can be quite tedious to read in one sitting. We’re talking about more than 15 pages of written work, which requires a lot of patience to review from the title page all the way to the appendix.

An effective way to keep your audience reading, regardless of how long your research paper is, is to include relevant images to explain some concepts. Often, the illustrations break the monotony of scanning paragraphs and walls of text, hence keeping the reader attached to the research paper.

What Types of Images Can You Include in a Research Paper? 

1. standard pictures .

We can define a picture as a painting, drawing, or a representation of an object in a photograph.

While there are no strict rules to the type of picture you can use in your research paper, you do have to make sure whatever you choose adequately fits into your writing.

You should also make sure that the picture you choose to include in your research paper is:

• Clear and visible 
• Self-descriptive. Readers should look at the image and know straight away why you included it in the paper.
• Closely related to the context and is within the scope of your research question
• Legal to use. Give credit to the image in your paper if it’s not your own.

There a few rules you need to observe when including pictures in your research paper. Generally, you can:

• Add a picture at the end of the paper, inside the paper separately from the text, or inside the text.
• Each picture must have a name, description, and a number
• Include information about the owner of the picture so you don’t violate their right to their own content.

You don’t have to worry about copyright if the pictures you intend to use in your research paper are your own.

Graphs and Charts 

Graphs and charts can explain complex concepts in few words and they can be quite handy in helping you solve several problems at once.

They are useful especially when you want to:

• Give a graphical illustration of statistics
• Give a detailed comparison between two or more phenomenon or objects
• To show the relationship between variables
• Demonstrate meaning, size, and level of influence of certain phenomena 

The benefit of using charts and graphs is that they make your research paper easy to read. Moreover, by presenting a huge amount of information in a laconic way, readers can easily understand concepts without having to read long text and multiple paragraphs.

For you, the writer, using graphs and charts means ensuring that your paper is more comprehensive and concise – without a trace of unnecessary words or irrelevant materials added to the assignment.

How Do You Cite Images in Your Research Paper? 

It’s very easy to cite an image, chart, or graph in a research paper. All you have to do is to make sure that the image includes:

• The name of the author
• The year the image was taken
• The title of the image
• The format of the image and additional details
• The date you accessed the image
• The source of the image

With this information, it should be easy for you to cite any image that you decide to include in your research paper.

Tips to Use Pictures, Charts, and Graphs in Research Paper 

First, ask your instructor to confirm if it’s appropriate to use pictures, charts, and graphs in your research paper. They’ll give you the necessary information to help you make the right decision.

Focus more on adding charts and graphs in your work, as these tend to be more relevant in illustrating mathematical, economics, and scientific principles.

Don’t use many images in your research paper. As significant as non-textual elements are, using more than you should, unless slowed by the theme of the assignment, isn’t necessary.

You should NOT include a picture in your research paper for decorative purpose. Leave cute captions to blogging platforms such as Medium and Buzzfeed. Make sure the image, graph, or chart that you include in your work relates to the question you wish to investigate in the essay.

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

References provide the information necessary for readers to identify and retrieve each work cited in the text .

Check each reference carefully against the original publication to ensure information is accurate and complete. Accurately prepared references help establish your credibility as a careful researcher and writer.

Consistency in reference formatting allows readers to focus on the content of your reference list, discerning both the types of works you consulted and the important reference elements (who, when, what, and where) with ease. When you present each reference in a consistent fashion, readers do not need to spend time determining how you organized the information. And when searching the literature yourself, you also save time and effort when reading reference lists in the works of others that are written in APA Style.

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What is mental imagery? Brain researchers explain the pictures in your mind and why they’re useful

Associate Professor of Physical Therapy and Kinesiology, UMass Lowell

Assistant Professor of Psychology, UMass Lowell

Disclosure statement

Lynne Gauthier receives funding from US Army Soldier Center and has prior funding from PCORI, the American Heart Association, and the National MS Society.

Jiabin Shen has received funding from National Institutes of Health (NIH), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), American Psychological Foundation (APF), and Society for Public Health Education (SOPHE).

University of Massachusetts provides funding as a member of The Conversation US.

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Curious Kids is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to [email protected] .

Why are some people able to visualize scenarios in their minds, with colors and details, and some people are not? – Luiza, age 14, Goiânia, Brazil

Imagine you are in a soccer match, and it’s tied. Each team will begin taking penalty kicks. The crowd is roaring, and whether or not your team wins the game depends on your ability to hit the shot. As you imagine this scene, are you able to picture the scenario with colors and details?

Scientists are hard at work trying to understand why some people can visualize these kinds of scenarios more easily than others can. Even the same person can be better or worse at picturing things in their mind at different times.

As neuroscientists in the fields of physical therapy and psychology , we think about the ways people use mental imagery. Here is what researchers do know so far.

The brain and mental imagery

Mental imagery is the ability to visualize things and scenarios in your mind, without actual physical input.

For example, when you think about your best friends, you may automatically picture their faces in your head without actually seeing them in front of you. When you daydream about an upcoming vacation, you may see yourself on the sunny beach.

People who dream about taking a penalty kick could visualize themselves like they are watching a video of it in their mind. They may even experience the smell of the turf or hear the sounds that fans would make.

Scientists believe your primary visual cortex , located in the back of your brain, is involved in internal visualization . This is the same part of the brain that processes visual information from the eyes and that lets you see the world around you.

Another brain region, located in the very front of the brain, also contributes to mental imagery. This structure, called the prefrontal cortex, is in charge of executive functions – a group of high-level mental skills that allow you to concentrate, plan, organize and reason.

Scientists have found such skills to be, at least to some extent, related to one’s mental imagery ability. If someone is good at holding and manipulating large amounts of information in mind, this person can play with things like numbers or images in their mind on the go.

Experiencing and remembering

Most of the same brain areas are active both while you’re actually experiencing an event and also when you’re visualizing it from a memory in your head. For example, when you behold the beauty of the Grand Canyon, your brain creates a memory of the image. But that memory is not simply stored in a single place in the brain. It’s created when thousands of brain cells across different parts of the brain fire together. Later, when a sound, smell or image triggers the memory, this network of brain cells fires together again, and you may picture the Grand Canyon in your head as clearly as if it were in front of you.

Benefits of mental imagery

The ability to mentally visualize can be helpful .

Notice the look of concentration on a gymnast’s face before competition. The athlete is likely visualizing themselves executing a perfect rings routine in their mind. This visualization activates the same brain regions as when they physically perform on the rings, building their confidence and priming their brain for better success.

Athletes can use visualization to help them acquire skills more quickly and with less wear and tear on their bodies. Engineers and mechanics can use visualization to help them fix or design things.

Mental visualization can also help people relearn how to move their bodies after a brain injury . However, with additional practice, those who do not use visualization will eventually catch up .

Nature-nurture interactions

All is not lost if you have difficulty visualizing. It is possible that the ability to visualize in your mind is a combined effect of both how your individual brain works and your life experiences.

For example, taxi drivers in London need to navigate very complicated streets and, scientists found, experience changes to their brain structures over the course of their careers. In particular, they develop larger hippocampuses , a brain structure related to memory. Scientists believe that the training the taxi drivers went through – having to visualize a map of complex streets across London in daily driving – made them better at mental imagery via changes in their hippocampus.

And watching someone else do a physical action activates the same brain areas as creating your own internal mental imagery. If you want to be able to do something, watching a video of someone else doing it can be just as helpful as visualizing yourself doing it in your head . So even if you struggle with mental visualization, there are still ways to reap its benefits.

Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to [email protected] . Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.

And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.

• Neuroscience
• Visual cortex
• Prefrontal cortex
• Curious Kids
• Visualization
• Curious Kids US

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Head of Evidence to Action

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Casual Facilitator: GERRIC Student Programs - Arts, Design and Architecture

Poster Samples

Looking at samples of real student posters can help you generate ideas and define your goals. As you get started, it may be helpful to look at examples of finished posters.

Below are a number of sample posters created by UT undergraduates. There is a brief discussion of each poster highlighting its greatest strengths and areas where there is room for improvement.

• More than one type of visual aid
• Logical order for sections
• Acknowledgments

Room for improvement

• Background may be distracting, or detract from content
• Sections and images are not aligned
• Too many visual components clutter poster

• White space
• Legible text and graphics
• Reports preliminary results
• All participants listed as authors, with affiliations provided
• Lacks Citations and Acknowledgements
• Labeling of images/graphics
• Inconsistent text alignment
• Color-saturated background

• Clearly defined research questions
• Effective use of visual aids
• Clear organizational structure
• Bullets break up text
• Technical language/undefined acronyms (accessible to limited audience)
• Narrow margins within text boxes
• Too many thick borders around boxes
• Uses UT seal instead of college or university wordmark

• Clear introductory material
• Use of bullet points
• Logical flow
• Color-coding in graphics
• Lacks references section
• May not be accessible to all audiences (some technical language)
• No need for borders around sections (the blue headers are sufficient)

• Compelling visual aids
• Strategic use of color
• Clear sections
• Inconsistent fonts in body text
• Abstract section mislabeled
• Bullet points are great, but only if they’re used judiciously

• Parameters of study well defined
• Clearly defined research question
• Simple color scheme
• Use of white space
• Discussion of Results
• Minor formatting misalignments
• Unauthorized use of UT seal (use wordmark instead)

• Venn diagram in discussion
• Consistent graphics
• Multiple types of visual aids
• Light text on dark background
• Color backgrounds should be avoided, especially dark ones
• Unlabeled, non-credited photos

• Easy to read
• Use of shapes, figures, and bullets to break up text
• Compelling title (and title font size)
• Clean overall visual impression
• Many sections without a clear flow between them
• Lacks acknowledgements

• Use of images/graphics
• Clear title
• Accessible but professional tone
• Length/density of text blocks
• Tiny photo citations
• Connections between images and descriptive text
• Vertical boxes unnecessary

• Compelling title
• Font sizes throughout (hierarchy of text)
• Simple graphics
• Lacks clear Background section
• Relationship of Findings and Conclusion to Research questions

• Use of visual aids
• Uneven column width
• Center-justfied body text
• Lacks “Methods” section

• Use of bullets
• Too many different font styles (serif and sans serif, bold and normal)
• Concise interpretation of graphics

• Accessible visual structure
• Clear, simple graphics
• Fonts and font sizes
• Analysis of graphic data
• Discussion of significance
• Lacks author’s affiliation and contact information

• Balance among visuals, text and white space
• Data presented in visual format (SmartArt)
• Accesible to many audiences (simple enough for general audience, but enough methodological detail for experts)
• Some more editing needed
• When targeting an expert audience (as in the methodology section), should also report statistics ( r, p, t, F, etc.)

• Large, clear title
• Creative adaptation of sections
• Use of lists (rather than paragraphs)
• Accessible to diverse audience
• Connection between visuals (sheet music) and content

• Strategic use of color for section headers
• Labeling and citation of images
• Accessible to a broad audience
• Wide margins around poster edges
• Slightly text-heavy
• Data referenced (“Methodology”) but not discussed

What is my next step?

Begin working on the content for your poster at Create Your Message .

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What is mental imagery? Brain researchers explain the pictures in your mind and why they’re useful

Curious Kids is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to [email protected] .

Why are some people able to visualize scenarios in their minds, with colors and details, and some people are not? – Luiza, age 14, Goiânia, Brazil

Imagine you are in a soccer match, and it’s tied. Each team will begin taking penalty kicks. The crowd is roaring, and whether or not your team wins the game depends on your ability to hit the shot. As you imagine this scene, are you able to picture the scenario with colors and details?

Scientists are hard at work trying to understand why some people can visualize these kinds of scenarios more easily than others can. Even the same person can be better or worse at picturing things in their mind at different times.

As neuroscientists in the fields of physical therapy and psychology , we think about the ways people use mental imagery. Here is what researchers do know so far.

The brain and mental imagery

Mental imagery is the ability to visualize things and scenarios in your mind, without actual physical input.

For example, when you think about your best friends, you may automatically picture their faces in your head without actually seeing them in front of you. When you daydream about an upcoming vacation, you may see yourself on the sunny beach.

People who dream about taking a penalty kick could visualize themselves like they are watching a video of it in their mind. They may even experience the smell of the turf or hear the sounds that fans would make.

Scientists believe your primary visual cortex , located in the back of your brain, is involved in internal visualization . This is the same part of the brain that processes visual information from the eyes and that lets you see the world around you.

Another brain region, located in the very front of the brain, also contributes to mental imagery. This structure, called the prefrontal cortex, is in charge of executive functions – a group of high-level mental skills that allow you to concentrate, plan, organize and reason.

Scientists have found such skills to be, at least to some extent, related to one’s mental imagery ability. If someone is good at holding and manipulating large amounts of information in mind, this person can play with things like numbers or images in their mind on the go.

Experiencing and remembering

Most of the same brain areas are active both while you’re actually experiencing an event and also when you’re visualizing it from a memory in your head. For example, when you behold the beauty of the Grand Canyon, your brain creates a memory of the image. But that memory is not simply stored in a single place in the brain. It’s created when thousands of brain cells across different parts of the brain fire together. Later, when a sound, smell or image triggers the memory, this network of brain cells fires together again, and you may picture the Grand Canyon in your head as clearly as if it were in front of you.

Benefits of mental imagery

The ability to mentally visualize can be helpful .

Notice the look of concentration on a gymnast’s face before competition. The athlete is likely visualizing themselves executing a perfect rings routine in their mind. This visualization activates the same brain regions as when they physically perform on the rings, building their confidence and priming their brain for better success.

Athletes can use visualization to help them acquire skills more quickly and with less wear and tear on their bodies. Engineers and mechanics can use visualization to help them fix or design things.

Mental visualization can also help people relearn how to move their bodies after a brain injury . However, with additional practice, those who do not use visualization will eventually catch up .

Nature-nurture interactions

All is not lost if you have difficulty visualizing. It is possible that the ability to visualize in your mind is a combined effect of both how your individual brain works and your life experiences.

For example, taxi drivers in London need to navigate very complicated streets and, scientists found, experience changes to their brain structures over the course of their careers. In particular, they develop larger hippocampuses , a brain structure related to memory. Scientists believe that the training the taxi drivers went through – having to visualize a map of complex streets across London in daily driving – made them better at mental imagery via changes in their hippocampus.

And watching someone else do a physical action activates the same brain areas as creating your own internal mental imagery. If you want to be able to do something, watching a video of someone else doing it can be just as helpful as visualizing yourself doing it in your head . So even if you struggle with mental visualization, there are still ways to reap its benefits.

Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to [email protected] . Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.

And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.

This article is republished from The Conversation , a nonprofit, independent news organization bringing you facts and analysis to help you make sense of our complex world.

It was written by: Lynne Gauthier , UMass Lowell and Jiabin Shen , UMass Lowell .

How do our brains reconstruct the visual world?

Your brain thinks – but how?

Lynne Gauthier receives funding from US Army Soldier Center and has prior funding from PCORI, the American Heart Association, and the National MS Society.

Jiabin Shen has received funding from National Institutes of Health (NIH), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), American Psychological Foundation (APF), and Society for Public Health Education (SOPHE).

• Library of Congress
• Research Guides
• Prints & Photographs

Prints & Photographs: Copyright and Rights and Restrictions Information

Copyright and other restrictions that apply to publication/distribution of images: assessing the risk of using a p&p image.

• Introduction
• Image Rights and Restrictions Statements
• Creative Commons Licenses and Definitions

Prints & Photographs : Ask a Librarian

Have a question? Need assistance? Use our online form to ask a librarian for help.

This page provides guidance on some of our most frequently asked questions about rights to images in Prints & Photographs Division (P&P) collections:

• Can I use an image that I've found in P&P's collections? (This discussion includes information on how long copyrights last )
• This all seems complicated when all I need is for you to sign a form giving me permission!
• If it displays for me off-site (searching from somewhere other than a Library of Congress workstation), does it mean it's ok to use?
• How should I credit the Library as the source of the images I'm using?

The information below applies to use of material in the United States. Use outside the U.S. is governed by the laws of the country in which the material is being used .

1. Can I use an image that I've found in the P&P collections?

The answer to this question involves considering other questions:

• What do you know about the rights associated with the image?  and
• How do you plan to use the image?  (For instance, if your use falls under the "fair use" clause in the copyright law, copyright will be less of an issue, though you will need to pay attention to any donor restrictions)

Sometimes the answer is very clear. Other times the answer isn't clear at all.

In all cases, it is the researcher's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright or other use restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in the Library's collections.

1a. What do you know about the rights associated with the image?

When the Prints & Photographs Division has information about copyright or donor restrictions associated with an image or a collection of images, it conveys that information to researchers through catalog records and/or rights statements. (Note: Users need to be aware of other types of rights that can apply, including privacy rights, publicity rights, licensing and trademarks.)

Can you find:

• An associated catalog record (text giving data about the specific image) in the Prints & Photographs Online Catalog ?
• A rights and restrictions statement giving information about rights?

If no catalog record data or rights statement is available , you will need to find the rights information related to the image or collection yourself .

Notes You May Find in P&P Catalog Records:

• "No known restrictions on publication"
• "Publication may be restricted"
• "May be restricted: Information on reproduction rights available in LC P&P Restrictions Notebook"
• "Rights status not evaluated ..."
• Notes with different wording or no note

When P&P staff have received or gathered information pertinent to rights for individual images, notes are added to the text of the catalog records to explain what is known.

• Does the catalog record associated with the image include text that says "No known restrictions on publication" ?

No known restrictions on publication  means that the Library is unaware of any restrictions on the use of the image. These are generally the situations where this phrase is used:

1. There was a copyright and it was not renewed or the term of copyright has expired (see section below,  "How Long Copyrights Last" .

2. The image is from a late 19th or early 20th century collection for which there is no evidence of any rights holder:

• There are no copyright markings or other indications on the images to indicate that they were copyrighted or otherwise restricted, AND
• The records of the U.S. Copyright Office do not indicate any copyright registration, AND
• The acquisition paperwork for the collection does not contain any evidence of any restrictions, AND
• Images from the collection have been used and published extensively without anyone stepping forward to claim rights.

These facts do not mean the image is in the public domain, but do indicate that no evidence has been found to show that restrictions apply.

What if there is a note with different wording from the above examples or no note at all? Catalog records have been created over a long period of time, so wording of rights information may vary. If a record does not contain a rights note, it may mean the Library has not received or gathered information pertaining to the rights for the image and you will need to gather that information yourself (see " Doing Your Own Evaluation ," below).

Individual Rights and Restrictions Statements

Rights and Restrictions statements written by P&P for specific collections or artists are available online. Look on the  Rights and Restrictions Information  page or search in the site search box on that page for the name of:

• the collection from which the image comes, or
• the artist who made it.

If there is no rights statement for a collection, we may not have analyzed it yet. The information below is intended to help you interpret the language found in rights and restrictions statements.

• Sometimes the donor’s restriction is on a certain type of use.  Example : LOOK Magazine Photograph Collection rights statement
• Sometimes the donor has specified the length of time that the collection is restricted.  Example : Brigitte Stelzer statement

Rights statements are sometimes confusing because images within a collection were sometimes made or gathered under varying circumstances. While the vast majority of images in a collection may be analyzed one way, there may be exceptions, and a few images may be analyzed another way.

Doing Your Own Rights Evaluation

When the Prints and Photographs Division has not provided catalog notes or rights statements, you will need to find the rights information related to the image or collection yourself. You'll need to gather whatever information you can about the image.

(Reminder: in  all  cases, it is the researcher's obligation to determine and satisfy copyright or other use restrictions when publishing or otherwise distributing materials found in the Library's collections.)

This section covers:

• Was the image made by the U.S. government?
• Searching for copyright information
• If you do not have copyright registration information for the image, do you think the item is published or unpublished?
• How long copyrights last
• Situations where there is simply insufficient information
• What about copying from a book or other published source?
• Finding more guidance

Was the Image Made by the U.S. Government?

Works created by officers and employees of the United States Government are not eligible for copyright protection within the United States. 17 U.S.C. § 105. For more information about U.S. government works and copyright, see: https://www.usa.gov/government-works .

Or Do You Have (Or Can You Get) Copyright Registration Information for the Image?

Evaluating the rights status of an item is pretty straightforward when the name of a copyright claimant and the copyright registration number and date is found on the image or in the catalog record that describes it.

Searching for Copyright Information

To determine whether you can get copyright information if it is  not  in the catalog record or on the item, you can

• search the records of the U.S. Copyright Office yourself, or
• hire someone to perform a search [see, for example, P&P's list of searchers ] or
• pay the Copyright Office for a search.

Copyright registrations from 1978 to the present can be searched online (see: " Guide to Searching the Copyright Office Catalog " [pdf]). Further information about copyright searching is available in U.S. Copyright Office  Circular 22  [pdf], "How to Investigate the Copyright Status of a Work," and from the Search Division of the U.S. Copyright Office (telephone 202-707-6850). Searches cannot be considered conclusive but will show a good faith effort.

If you find copyright registration information, the next step is to determine how long that copyright protection would last (see  How Long Copyrights Last , below)

In the Absence of Copyright Registration Information, Do You Think the Item is Published or Unpublished?

The U.S. copyright law distinguishes between "published" and "unpublished" material, with different terms of copyright applied to each.

Based on what you conclude about whether the work in question is  published  or  unpublished , the next step is to determine how long the copyright protection would last.

How Long Copyrights Last

You can apply facts about the duration of copyright to determine if a copyright has expired or is still in effect. The full copyright law is available from the U.S. Copyright Office web site at  http://www.copyright.gov/ , as are circulars that explain specific aspects of the law, including these circulars, which deal with duration of copyright:

• Circular 1 , Copyright Basics [PDF file; 129 kb]
• Circular 15 , Renewal of Copyright [PDF file; 136 kb]
• Circular 15a , Duration of Copyright [PDF file; 187 kb]
• Circular 15t , Extension of Copyright Terms [PDF file; 19 kb]

The following facts are drawn from the circulars listed above:

Works published or registered in the U.S. more than 95 years ago are now in the public domain.  The simplest calculation (if you prefer to deal in round numbers) is to: add 100 to the year the item was published/registered for copyright and subtract 4. The item will enter the public domain on January 1 of that year [see #1 in the chart of examples below].

Note : Starting in the late 1990s and up until 2019, a key date for assessing copyright in the U.S. was the year 1923. That was because, according to the Copyright Act of 1976, works registered for copyright or published with a copyright notice were protected for a maximum of 75 years of copyright protection, assuming the copyrights on the works were renewed (28 years first term plus 47 for the second, if renewed). Public Law 105-298 enacted in October 1998 increased the maximum to 95 years [28 years first term and 67 for the second, if renewed]. Before 1998 the longest amount of time a work could be protected was 75 years, so works before 1923 were no longer protected (1998 minus 75 years equals 1923). When the law changed, the 1923 date was "frozen" and remained so until January 1, 2019.

Published works registered for copyright in the U.S. through Dec. 31, 1963 are now in the public domain unless the copyright was renewed . If the copyright was not renewed, the copyright expired after 28 years. If the copyright was renewed, the item is protected for 95 years from the copyright date. The only way to determine whether the item was copyrighted and that the copyright was renewed is to do a copyright search (see information above about  copyright searching ). [see #2-5 in the chart of examples below]

Works published with a copyright notice or registered for copyright between January 1, 1964 and December 31, 1977 are generally protected for 95 years  [see #6 in the chart of examples below].

Examples: 

Works created by individuals on or after Jan. 1, 1978 are generally protected for the creator's life plus 70 years.  ( Circular 1  [pdf], "Copyright Basics," page 4). Works made for hire are protected for longer terms--see the  section below on works for hire . For unpublished works where the death date of the creator is not known, the copyright term is 120 years from the date of creation. Note about copyright notices : For some pre-1989 works, publication without a copyright notice may mean that the item is in the public domain. The criterion of the copyright notice is easy enough to apply to books, but a bit tricky with images, since the original work may have had a copyright notice that was not reproduced on subsequent copies or the copyright may have been on the work in which the image appeared, rather than on the image itself.  Images without a copyright notice may still be under copyright. The U.S. Copyright Office  Circular 3  [pdf; 125 kb], "Copyright Notice" explains the notice requirements for works published between January 1, 1978, and February 28, 1989 and provides a reference for locating information on the requirements prior to 1978.

If you think the item should be considered  unpublished ,  this guidance from the U.S. Copyright Office applies:

Works created before January 1, 1978 but not published or registered by that date are generally protected by copyright law for the life of the creator plus 70 years.  ( Circular 1  [pdf], "Copyright Basics, " page 4) . For unpublished anonymous works and works where the death date of the creator is not known, the copyright term is 120 years from the date of creation.

Works created on or after Jan. 1, 1978 are generally protected for the creator's life plus 70 years.  ( Circular 1  [pdf], "Copyright Basics," page 4)

Situations Where the Image Was Made "For Hire" or Is an Anonymous or a Pseudonymous Work

Works made for hire : One complicating factor is when someone makes an image for someone else (a “work made for hire”). In that case, the party that hired the individual to create the work is considered the author and holds the copyright in that creation. Works made for hire are under copyright for 95 years from publication or 120 years from creation, whichever is shorter. ( Circular 1  [pdf], "Copyright Basics, " page 3-4)

Anonymous and pseudonymous works : The duration of copyright for works for hire and for anonymous and pseudonymous works is 95 years from publication or 120 years from creation, whichever is shorter. ( Circular 1  [pdf], "Copyright Basics, " page 4)

Foreign Works

For  use within the United States , the following guidelines apply:

• Works published outside the U.S. but registered for copyright in the U.S. more than 95 years ago are considered to be in the public domain. [ Fishman , chapter 18.13 and 18.15]
• For works other circumstances/countries, consult U.S. Copyright Office  Circular 38A , "International Copyright Relations."

Use Outside the United States

The use of US copyrighted works outside of the United States is complicated and may be affected by international treaties and the laws of other countries. Consult  Circular 38A  [pdf], "International Copyright Relations" for more information.

Situations Where There is Simply Insufficient Information

Unfortunately, many P&P images lack information on the image or associated with the image (particularly the date of creation or the name of the individual or firm that created the image) to help with rights evaluation.

These images, sometimes called "orphan works," are the most vexing to researchers trying to determine rights. You will need to consider what you know about when and why the image was created, what you plan to use the image for, and then assess the risk of using it for that purpose.

Request a  copyright search , even if you have little information to go on. The paperwork from the Copyright Office could show your good faith effort to establish the rights status of the image.

• Record the type of searching you have done and what you did or didn't find, so you can demonstrate you used due diligence in searching for the rights holder.

It may or may not help to know that the problem is so vexing that the U.S. Copyright Office recently opened an examination of issues related to orphan works , which it defined as those whose owners are difficult or even impossible to locate.

What About Copying One of P&P's Images from a Book or Other Published Source?

If you are planning to copy and publish an image from a copyrighted, published source (e.g., a book), you should check with the publisher, since technically it owns the rights to the version appearing in the book--though few publishers realize that or seem to wish to control such copying.

Finding More Guidance

Information is available from the U.S. Copyright Office web site .

The U.S. Copyright Office, the Prints & Photographs Division, and other units of the Library of Congress do not provide legal advice about copyright law. The following resources may be helpful as further guidance:

A chart laying out when items pass into the public domain published by the Cornell Copyright Information Center External .

A book written by professional picture researcher Scott Tambert: How to Use Images Legally External

John Schultz and Barbara Schultz, Picture Research: A Practical Guide . N.Y.: Van Nostrand, 1991. [call number: TR147.S38 1991 P&P] This book, for instance, summarized the problem of the lack of precise copyright/publication information when it comes to images:

...Pictures can fall into a murky area where they may or may not be copyrighted. These situations are perilous to the user, and vexing to the picture researcher or permissions researcher who must try to assure the publisher that he owns the legal right to reproduce. When copyright is unknown or ambiguous, publishers have to make calculated risk decisions.... ( p. 216).

• Stephen Fishman, The Public Domain: How to Find & Use Copyright-free Writings, Music, Art & More . 2nd ed. Berkeley, CA: Nolo, 2004. [LC call number: KF3022.Z9 F57 2004]

1b. How do you plan to use the image?

After you have gathered whatever facts are available about the rights associated with the image, consider how you plan to use the image.

• Could your use be considered "fair use" ? Section 107 of the U.S. Copyright law contains a list of the various purposes for which the reproduction of a particular work may be considered "fair," such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research. See: U.S. Copyright Office Frequently Asked Questions fact sheet on fair use .

Some information on privacy and publicity rights is available in the Library of Congress online legal notice .

Some examples of making use determinations

A publishing company wants to copy, reprint, and sell as a postcard (intended use) a photograph copyrighted before 1923 (facts about the image). It decides that since the copyright has clearly expired it is ok to do so.

A textbook publisher want to use photographs taken by John Collier for the U.S. Farm Security Administration in a textbook (intended use). He sees that the Rights and Restrictions statement says “Most photographs in this collection were taken by photographers working for the U.S. Government. Work by the U.S. Government is not eligible for copyright protection (see page 5 of the Copyright Office's Circular 1, "Copyright Basics"). However, the FSA occasionally and the OWI frequently bought or otherwise obtained some photographs from other sources. All known information about the source of the images is found in the labels on the photographs.” He double checks the catalog records for the images he wants to use to be sure they are all by John Collier, a photographer who worked for the FSA, and hence for the U.S. government (facts about the image  and  the collection from which it comes), and decides the images are ok to use.

2. This all seems complicated when all I need is for you to sign a form giving me permission!

3. if it displays for me off site does it mean it's ok to use.

The Library displays jpegs and tiffs offsite for those images for which a rights analysis shows:

• that there are "No known restrictions," OR
• that the copyright has expired, OR
• that the creator has released his rights OR
• Camilo José Vergara rights and restrictions statement  OR
• Farm Security Administration/Office of War Information Collection rights and restrictions statement
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• Copy URL https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/fact-checking-warnings-from-democrats-about-project-2025-and-donald-trump

Fact-checking warnings from Democrats about Project 2025 and Donald Trump

This fact check originally appeared on PolitiFact .

Project 2025 has a starring role in this week’s Democratic National Convention.

And it was front and center on Night 1.

WATCH: Hauling large copy of Project 2025, Michigan state Sen. McMorrow speaks at 2024 DNC

“This is Project 2025,” Michigan state Sen. Mallory McMorrow, D-Royal Oak, said as she laid a hardbound copy of the 900-page document on the lectern. “Over the next four nights, you are going to hear a lot about what is in this 900-page document. Why? Because this is the Republican blueprint for a second Trump term.”

Vice President Kamala Harris, the Democratic presidential nominee, has warned Americans about “Trump’s Project 2025” agenda — even though former President Donald Trump doesn’t claim the conservative presidential transition document.

“Donald Trump wants to take our country backward,” Harris said July 23 in Milwaukee. “He and his extreme Project 2025 agenda will weaken the middle class. Like, we know we got to take this seriously, and can you believe they put that thing in writing?”

Minnesota Gov. Tim Walz, Harris’ running mate, has joined in on the talking point.

“Don’t believe (Trump) when he’s playing dumb about this Project 2025. He knows exactly what it’ll do,” Walz said Aug. 9 in Glendale, Arizona.

Trump’s campaign has worked to build distance from the project, which the Heritage Foundation, a conservative think tank, led with contributions from dozens of conservative groups.

Much of the plan calls for extensive executive-branch overhauls and draws on both long-standing conservative principles, such as tax cuts, and more recent culture war issues. It lays out recommendations for disbanding the Commerce and Education departments, eliminating certain climate protections and consolidating more power to the president.

Project 2025 offers a sweeping vision for a Republican-led executive branch, and some of its policies mirror Trump’s 2024 agenda, But Harris and her presidential campaign have at times gone too far in describing what the project calls for and how closely the plans overlap with Trump’s campaign.

PolitiFact researched Harris’ warnings about how the plan would affect reproductive rights, federal entitlement programs and education, just as we did for President Joe Biden’s Project 2025 rhetoric. Here’s what the project does and doesn’t call for, and how it squares with Trump’s positions.

Are Trump and Project 2025 connected?

To distance himself from Project 2025 amid the Democratic attacks, Trump wrote on Truth Social that he “knows nothing” about it and has “no idea” who is in charge of it. (CNN identified at least 140 former advisers from the Trump administration who have been involved.)

The Heritage Foundation sought contributions from more than 100 conservative organizations for its policy vision for the next Republican presidency, which was published in 2023.

Project 2025 is now winding down some of its policy operations, and director Paul Dans, a former Trump administration official, is stepping down, The Washington Post reported July 30. Trump campaign managers Susie Wiles and Chris LaCivita denounced the document.

WATCH: A look at the Project 2025 plan to reshape government and Trump’s links to its authors

However, Project 2025 contributors include a number of high-ranking officials from Trump’s first administration, including former White House adviser Peter Navarro and former Housing and Urban Development Secretary Ben Carson.

A recently released recording of Russell Vought, a Project 2025 author and the former director of Trump’s Office of Management and Budget, showed Vought saying Trump’s “very supportive of what we do.” He said Trump was only distancing himself because Democrats were making a bogeyman out of the document.

Project 2025 wouldn’t ban abortion outright, but would curtail access

The Harris campaign shared a graphic on X that claimed “Trump’s Project 2025 plan for workers” would “go after birth control and ban abortion nationwide.”

The plan doesn’t call to ban abortion nationwide, though its recommendations could curtail some contraceptives and limit abortion access.

What’s known about Trump’s abortion agenda neither lines up with Harris’ description nor Project 2025’s wish list.

Project 2025 says the Department of Health and Human Services Department should “return to being known as the Department of Life by explicitly rejecting the notion that abortion is health care.”

It recommends that the Food and Drug Administration reverse its 2000 approval of mifepristone, the first pill taken in a two-drug regimen for a medication abortion. Medication is the most common form of abortion in the U.S. — accounting for around 63 percent in 2023.

If mifepristone were to remain approved, Project 2025 recommends new rules, such as cutting its use from 10 weeks into pregnancy to seven. It would have to be provided to patients in person — part of the group’s efforts to limit access to the drug by mail. In June, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected a legal challenge to mifepristone’s FDA approval over procedural grounds.

WATCH: Trump’s plans for health care and reproductive rights if he returns to White House The manual also calls for the Justice Department to enforce the 1873 Comstock Act on mifepristone, which bans the mailing of “obscene” materials. Abortion access supporters fear that a strict interpretation of the law could go further to ban mailing the materials used in procedural abortions, such as surgical instruments and equipment.

The plan proposes withholding federal money from states that don’t report to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention how many abortions take place within their borders. The plan also would prohibit abortion providers, such as Planned Parenthood, from receiving Medicaid funds. It also calls for the Department of Health and Human Services to ensure that the training of medical professionals, including doctors and nurses, omits abortion training.

The document says some forms of emergency contraception — particularly Ella, a pill that can be taken within five days of unprotected sex to prevent pregnancy — should be excluded from no-cost coverage. The Affordable Care Act requires most private health insurers to cover recommended preventive services, which involves a range of birth control methods, including emergency contraception.

Trump has recently said states should decide abortion regulations and that he wouldn’t block access to contraceptives. Trump said during his June 27 debate with Biden that he wouldn’t ban mifepristone after the Supreme Court “approved” it. But the court rejected the lawsuit based on standing, not the case’s merits. He has not weighed in on the Comstock Act or said whether he supports it being used to block abortion medication, or other kinds of abortions.

Project 2025 doesn’t call for cutting Social Security, but proposes some changes to Medicare

“When you read (Project 2025),” Harris told a crowd July 23 in Wisconsin, “you will see, Donald Trump intends to cut Social Security and Medicare.”

The Project 2025 document does not call for Social Security cuts. None of its 10 references to Social Security addresses plans for cutting the program.

Harris also misleads about Trump’s Social Security views.

In his earlier campaigns and before he was a politician, Trump said about a half-dozen times that he’s open to major overhauls of Social Security, including cuts and privatization. More recently, in a March 2024 CNBC interview, Trump said of entitlement programs such as Social Security, “There’s a lot you can do in terms of entitlements, in terms of cutting.” However, he quickly walked that statement back, and his CNBC comment stands at odds with essentially everything else Trump has said during the 2024 presidential campaign.

Trump’s campaign website says that not “a single penny” should be cut from Social Security. We rated Harris’ claim that Trump intends to cut Social Security Mostly False.

Project 2025 does propose changes to Medicare, including making Medicare Advantage, the private insurance offering in Medicare, the “default” enrollment option. Unlike Original Medicare, Medicare Advantage plans have provider networks and can also require prior authorization, meaning that the plan can approve or deny certain services. Original Medicare plans don’t have prior authorization requirements.

The manual also calls for repealing health policies enacted under Biden, such as the Inflation Reduction Act. The law enabled Medicare to negotiate with drugmakers for the first time in history, and recently resulted in an agreement with drug companies to lower the prices of 10 expensive prescriptions for Medicare enrollees.

Trump, however, has said repeatedly during the 2024 presidential campaign that he will not cut Medicare.

Project 2025 would eliminate the Education Department, which Trump supports

The Harris campaign said Project 2025 would “eliminate the U.S. Department of Education” — and that’s accurate. Project 2025 says federal education policy “should be limited and, ultimately, the federal Department of Education should be eliminated.” The plan scales back the federal government’s role in education policy and devolves the functions that remain to other agencies.

Aside from eliminating the department, the project also proposes scrapping the Biden administration’s Title IX revision, which prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. It also would let states opt out of federal education programs and calls for passing a federal parents’ bill of rights similar to ones passed in some Republican-led state legislatures.

Republicans, including Trump, have pledged to close the department, which gained its status in 1979 within Democratic President Jimmy Carter’s presidential Cabinet.

In one of his Agenda 47 policy videos, Trump promised to close the department and “to send all education work and needs back to the states.” Eliminating the department would have to go through Congress.

What Project 2025, Trump would do on overtime pay

In the graphic, the Harris campaign says Project 2025 allows “employers to stop paying workers for overtime work.”

The plan doesn’t call for banning overtime wages. It recommends changes to some Occupational Safety and Health Administration, or OSHA, regulations and to overtime rules. Some changes, if enacted, could result in some people losing overtime protections, experts told us.

The document proposes that the Labor Department maintain an overtime threshold “that does not punish businesses in lower-cost regions (e.g., the southeast United States).” This threshold is the amount of money executive, administrative or professional employees need to make for an employer to exempt them from overtime pay under the Fair Labor Standards Act.

In 2019, the Trump’s administration finalized a rule that expanded overtime pay eligibility to most salaried workers earning less than about $35,568, which it said made about 1.3 million more workers eligible for overtime pay. The Trump-era threshold is high enough to cover most line workers in lower-cost regions, Project 2025 said.

The Biden administration raised that threshold to $43,888 beginning July 1, and that will rise to $58,656 on Jan. 1, 2025. That would grant overtime eligibility to about 4 million workers, the Labor Department said.

It’s unclear how many workers Project 2025’s proposal to return to the Trump-era overtime threshold in some parts of the country would affect, but experts said some would presumably lose the right to overtime wages.

Other overtime proposals in Project 2025’s plan include allowing some workers to choose to accumulate paid time off instead of overtime pay, or to work more hours in one week and fewer in the next, rather than receive overtime.

Trump’s past with overtime pay is complicated. In 2016, the Obama administration said it would raise the overtime to salaried workers earning less than $47,476 a year, about double the exemption level set in 2004 of $23,660 a year.

But when a judge blocked the Obama rule, the Trump administration didn’t challenge the court ruling. Instead it set its own overtime threshold, which raised the amount, but by less than Obama.

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• DOI: 10.21980/J8FH2J
• Corpus ID: 271821432

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• Megan Stodola , Megan Lantz , +2 authors Isaac Philip
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