separating salt from sand experiment

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How to Separate Sand and Salt

Last Updated: June 15, 2024 References

This article was reviewed by Anne Schmidt . Anne Schmidt is a Chemistry Instructor in Wisconsin. Anne has been teaching high school chemistry for over 20 years and is passionate about providing accessible and educational chemistry content. She has over 9,000 subscribers to her educational chemistry YouTube channel. She has presented at the American Association of Chemistry Teachers (AATC) and was an Adjunct General Chemistry Instructor at Northeast Wisconsin Technical College. Anne was published in the Journal of Chemical Education as a Co-Author, has an article in ChemEdX, and has presented twice and was published with the AACT. Anne has a BS in Chemistry from the University of Wisconsin, Oshkosh, and an MA in Secondary Education and Teaching from Viterbo University. This article has been viewed 192,831 times.

Separating sand and salt is a fun science experiment you can do from home. If you were ever interested in the scientific idea of solubility, separating these two is a simple way of demonstrating the concept. Whether at home or in a classroom, it's an incredibly straightforward process, and you'll get a chance to see science in action.

Carrying Out the Experiment

• Salt. Most households have table salt in the kitchen. If you're in a pinch, you can get salt packets from a fast food restaurant.
• Sand. Although it depends on where you live, sand should be very easy to find.
• A coffee filter and funnel. If the sand has a lot of chunks it, you should sift those out first using a strainer. [1] X Research source
• A pan and heating element. If you're in a chemistry lab, a flask and bunsen burner are arguably even better. [2] X Research source A second pan or plate is also recommended to catch the strained saltwater.
• For the sake of keeping the experiment controlled, do your best to make the portions equal.
• You should have between 15g of salt and sand each. This roughly equates to 1 tablespoon of each. [3] X Research source
• It's better to use smaller proportions. The experiment will prove the same point regardless, and it makes it easier to set up and clean up afterwards.
• Too much water will make the experiment take too long to boil off.
• Exact measurements aren't needed, but it can help keep the experiment consistent if you repeat it.
• Medium temperature on a stovetop will do nicely for this step.
• If you don't want to tamper with the dissolving process, you should leave the mixture untouched overnight.
• Make sure not to heat the water to the point of boiling! This will simply cause the water to evaporate, and you'll have to start from the beginning again.
• If you don't have any coffee filters, use a paper towel or a piece of cotton fabric, such as a handkerchief or bandana.
• The boiling temperature of salt is much higher than water. For the sake of protecting your pot, you should keep the temperature relatively low on the stovetop. It may take longer to boil, but speed isn't worth the risk of damage.
• From here, you can retrieve the salt. Put the retrieved salt next to the sand for the sake of completion if you so desire.

Recording Your Observations

• Although a salt and sand experiment is generally pretty simple, you'll find you get more satisfaction by going through the paperwork.

• Although the salt dissolves in the heated water, the salt remains intact.
• The salt needs the water to be heated before it dissolves.
• The salt doesn't boil away with the water.

• If you're by yourself, checking out a recording of the experiment on a streaming site like YouTube can be interesting. Even if you know the result, it is nonetheless worthwhile to see how someone else went about it.
• "Does the type of heating surface affect how well the salt dissolves?"
• "Would the experiment be different if I tried to dissolve it by stirring in room temperature water?"
• "Is the salt pure of water after boiling, or has the salt changed?"

• For a lot of homebrewed experiments, baking soda is very fun to play around with. You could try adding that to your mixture next time. [7] X Trustworthy Source Science Buddies Expert-sourced database of science projects, explanations, and educational material Go to source
• Doing this as part of a group is more enjoyable than doing it on your own.

Community Q&A

• This is a very simple experiment and doesn't require a group, but it can be more fun if you do it with someone else. It also helps to discuss what you observed afterwards. Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 0
• You may need the help of an adult while heating the mixtures. Be careful! Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 0
• Repeating the experiment a second time isn't necessary, but it's always good to double-check your results if something goes awry. Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 0

• Although sand and salt aren't volatile chemicals, it will hurt if you let any of it get in your eyes. Protective eye gear is recommended if you happen to have any at your disposal. Thanks Helpful 7 Not Helpful 2

You Might Also Like

• ↑ http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/bring-science-home-separate-solutions/
• ↑ http://www.rsc.org/learn-chemistry/resource/res00000386/separating-sand-and-salt?cmpid=CMP00005908
• ↑ http://www.exploratorium.edu/cooking/convert/measurements.html
• ↑ http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_ideas/Chem_p016.shtml
• ↑ http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_ideas/Chem_p016.shtml#makeityourown

About This Article

To separate sand and salt, start by pouring the sand and salt mixture into a pan. Then, add just enough water to cover the mixture. Heat the mixture over medium heat on a stovetop, which will cause the salt to dissolve in the water. Once the salt has completely dissolved, pour the mixture through a strainer to separate the sand and salt water. Finally, boil the salt water until all of the water evaporates and you're just left with the salt you started with. If you want to learn how to get the salt out of your pan when you're finished, keep reading the article! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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How to Separate Salt and Sand — 3 Methods

Separating Soluble and Insoluble Components of a Mixture

ThoughtCo / Vin Ganapathy

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One practical application of chemistry is that it can be used to help separate one substance from another. The reasons materials may be separated is because there is some difference between them, such as size (separating rocks from sand), state of matter (separating water from ice), solubility, electrical charge, or melting point. Below we'll explain how to separate salt and sand in several ways.

How to Separate Sand and Salt

• Students are often asked to separate salt and sand to learn about mixtures and to explore the differences between forms of matter that can be used to separate mixture components.
• Three methods used to separate salt and sand are physical separation (picking out pieces or using density to shake sand to the top), dissolving the salt in water, or melting the salt.
• Probably the easiest method to separate the two substances is to dissolve salt in water, pour the liquid away from the sand, and then evaporate the water to recover the salt.

Physical Separation of Salt and Sand

Since both salt and sand are solids, you could get a magnifying glass and tweezers and eventually pick out particles of salt and sand.

Another physical separation method is based on the different densities of salt and sand. The density of salt is 2.16 g/cm³ while the density of sand is 2.65 g/cm³. In other words, sand is slightly heavier than salt. If you shake a pan of salt and sand, the salt will eventually rise to the top. A similar method is used to pan for gold, since gold has a higher density than most other substances and sinks in a mixture .

How to Separate Salt and Sand Using Solubility

One method of separating salt and sand is based on solubility . If a substance is soluble, it means it dissolves in a solvent.  Salt  (sodium chloride or NaCl) is an ionic compound that is soluble in water. Sand (mostly silicon dioxide) is not.

• Pour the salt and sand mixture into a pan.
• Add water. You don't need to add a lot of water. Solubility is a property that is affected by temperature, so more salt dissolves in hot water than cold water. It's okay if the salt doesn't dissolve at this point.
• Heat the water until the salt dissolves. If you get to where the water is boiling and there is still solid salt, you can add a bit more water.
• Remove the pan from heat and allow it to cool until it's safe to handle.
• Pour the salt water into a separate container.
• Now collect the sand.
• Pour the salt water back into the empty pan.
• Heat the salt water until the water boils. Continue boiling it until the water is gone and you're left with the salt.

Another way you can separate the salt water and sand is to stir up the sand/salt water and pour it through a coffee filter to capture the sand.

How to Separate Sand and Salt Using Melting Point

Another method to separate components of a mixture is based on melting point . The melting point of salt is 1474°F (801°C), while that of sand is 3110°F (1710°C). Salt becomes molten at a lower temperature than sand. To separate the components, a mixture of salt and sand is heated above 801°C, yet below 1710°C. The molten salt may be poured off, leaving the sand. Usually, this is not the most practical method of separation because both temperatures are very high. While the collected salt would be pure, some liquid salt would contaminate the sand, like trying to separate sand from water by pouring off water.

Notes and Questions

You can simply let the water evaporate from the pan until you are left with the salt. If you had chosen to evaporate the water, one way you could have sped up the process would have been to pour the salt water into a large, shallow container. The increased surface area would have exchanged the rate at which water vapor could have entered the air.

The salt did not boil away with the water; this is because the boiling point of salt is much higher than that of water. The difference between boiling points can be used to purify water via distillation . In distillation, the water is boiled, but is then cooled so it will condense from vapor back into water and can be collected. Boiling water separates it from salt and other compounds, like sugar, but it has to be carefully controlled to separate it from chemicals that have lower or similar boiling points.

While this technique can be used to separate salt and water or sugar and water, it would not separate the salt and sugar from a mixture of salt, sugar, and water. Can you think of a way to separate sugar and salt?

Ready for something more challenging? Try purifying salt from rock salt .

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How to Separate a Mixture of Sand & Salt

How to Separate Copper Sulfate & Sand

The separation of mixtures is a fundamental science experiment that is performed in many classrooms around the world to teach students the basics of procedures like filtration, heating, and evaporation. When attempting to separate a mixture of sand and salt, you'll need some standard lab equipment like glass containers, filter paper and a bunsen burner.

Fill a test tube about half-way with the sand-salt mixture.

Pour water into the test tube. Use enough water to completely submerge the sand-salt mixture.

Stir or shake the mixture for a few minutes so that the salt dissolves in the water. The sand is insoluble, so it will remain visible.

Curl a piece of filter paper into a cone shape and place it in a filter funnel.

Pour the mixture through the filter funnel into a crucible or evaporating basin. The filter paper will hold back the sand and only allow the salt solution to pass through it.

Place the crucible containing the salt solution on a tripod, and heat the bottom of it with a bunsen burner. After a while, the water will evaporate, leaving only the salt crystals behind.

Place the wet filter paper with the sand under a heat lamp or leave it in the sun to dry it out.

Scrape the salt crystals out of the crucible. You should now be left with a pile of sand and a pile of salt, having successfully separated the two from the mixture.

Things You'll Need

As a general rule, you should always wear protective eyewear when heating materials with a bunsen burner.

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• Practical Chemistry: Separating Sand and Salt
• Zephyrus: Separating Mixtures

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How to Separate Sand and Salt

You can separate sand and salt either to obtain the components of a mixture or to explore separation chemistry. Separation is a method of purification that based on physical or chemical differences between two or more materials. Here are four ways to separate sand and salt and a look at the principles involved. This is a great science project for students at any grade level because it gets them thinking about properties of matter using familiar materials. They can apply the scientific method to test different separation methods.

Separate Sand and Salt Mechanically

Components of any mixture, such as sand and salt, are separated based on their differences. Both sand and salt are solids with similar-size particles. However, the particles look different under magnification. One method to separate sand and salt is to use tweezers to mechanically separate the grains, piece by piece. It’s not an efficient separation method, but it works.

Separate Sand and Salt by Density

You can separate sand and salt much more quickly using the different densities of the two substances. The density of salt is 2.16 g/cm³ while the density of sand is 2.65 g/cm³. Put another way, if you filled a bucket with salt and another with sand, the one with sand would weigh more. Sand is slightly heavier than salt.

So, if you shake a pan of sand and salt, the salt will rise to the top of the pan. You can scrape off the top layer of salt to separate it from the sand. The same principle is used to pan for gold. Gold is heavier than most other substances, so it stays at the bottom of the pan.

Separate Sand and Salt by Solubility

Salt dissolves in water, but sand does not. In other words, salt is soluble in water, while sand is not. So, you can use the difference in solubility to separate a mixture of sand and salt. Add water to the mixture until the salt dissolves. Solubility increases with temperature, so you’ll need less water if it’s hot. Once the salt dissolves, you can collect the sand. One way to do this is to pour the sand and salt water through a coffee filter or fine strainer . You can recover the salt by boiling the salt water until all of the water evaporates. Alternatively, you could just pour the salt water into a pan and let the water slowly evaporate. People get sea salt by spreading sea water over a large area and letting the sun evaporate the water.

Separate Sand and Salt by Melting Point

Salt (sodium chloride) and sand (silicon dioxide) have different melting points. The melting point of salt is 1474°F (801°C), while that of sand is 3110°F (1710°C). So, if you apply heat, salt melts before sand. You can use the melting point difference to separate a mixture of sand and salt by heating the mixture above 801°C, but below 1710°C. Pour the molten salt off, leaving the sand. While it’s possible to separate the components of the mixture using melting point, it’s not very practical. High temperatures are involved and the sand will be contaminated with a bit of salt. When you pour away the liquid salt, a little will contaminate the sand, like when you pour water off of sand.

Questions and Answers for Students

Here are some questions to ask students to get them thinking about how separation works:

• Which method does the best job at separating sand and salt? Answer: Solubility works best because no sand remains in the salt water, while very little salt remains on the sand. If you rinse the remaining sand with water, you can boil it off to recover the remaining salt.
• Does any method recover 100% of the salt and sand from the mixture? Answer: Not really. Although it’s slow, picking up individual sand and salt particles probably gives the best separation. However, at the molecular level, there’s probably a little salt on the surface of the sand. Purification always involves a little loss.
• How can you make separation using solubility more efficient? Answer: Use boiling water to dissolve the salt to minimize the amount of water that is needed. To recover the salt, pour the salt water in a thin layer to increase surface area and speed the rate of evaporation.
• Using the solubility method, why doesn’t salt evaporate with the water? Answer: Water has a much higher vapor pressure than salt. Water also has a much lower boiling point than salt. Using different boiling points is the basis of the separation method called distillation.
• Would any of these methods work to separate salt and sugar ? Answer: You could separate them using tweezers under magnification (although you’d hate your life). Salt crystals are cubic, while sugar crystals are hexagonal prisms. You could use solubility. Sugar dissolves in alcohol , while salt does not. While the two compounds have different boiling points, you’d have to be careful to avoid burning the sugar.
• National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2019). A Research Agenda for Transforming Separation Science (Report). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25421
• Wilson, Ian D.; Adlard, Edward R.; Cooke, Michael; et al., eds. (2000). Encyclopedia of Separation Science . San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-226770-3.

Related Posts

How to Separate Sand and Salt by Filtration and Evaporation

As a chemist, you have numerous methods at your disposal to separate sand and salt. However, the simplest approach involves combining two basic separation techniques we’ve previously discussed: filtration and evaporation . Through filtration, you can isolate the sand from the saltwater solution. And by subjecting the saltwater solution to evaporation, you’ll recover the salt in its solid form.

Here is how to go about it:

Apparatus and Chemicals You Need

• Bunsen burner
• Tripod Stand
• Filter Funnel
• Filter Paper
• Evaporating Dish
• Stirring Rod
• Sodium Chloride (Common Salt)
• Make a mixture containing equal amounts of salt and sand.
• Place about 20g of the mixture in a 500ml beaker.
• Add about 200ml of the water into the beaker and stir with a stirring rod.
• Boil the mixture to dissolve as much as possible. You can add more water if necessary.
• Pour the mixture into a filter funnel fitted with filter paper (as shown in the previous filtration setup ). Collect the filtrate in another beaker.
• Transfer the filtrate to an evaporating dish and heat over a steam bath (as shown in the previous evaporation setup ) until all the liquid evaporates.
• Allow the hot concentrated filtrate to cool for more crystals to form.

Observation and Discussion

Sand is insoluble in water and doesn’t dissolve even after boiling. When you filter the mixture, sand is left as residue on the filter paper. The filtrate is a solution of sodium chloride in water since sodium chloride is soluble in water. When you evaporate the filtrate over a water bath, you are left with pure sodium chloride (or common salt) in the form of a white powder. You then allow the hot concentrated filtrate to cool to allow more crystals of sodium chloride to form.

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Separating sand, sawdust and salt

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Help Mrs Johal to clean up after her messy class by separating sand, sawdust and salt

This session should take 60 minutes. 

• Filter funnels
• Filter papers
• Mixture of sand/salt/sawdust 

Health, safety and technical notes

• Read our standard health and safety guidance here .
• Wear eye or clothing protection if desired.
• This is an open-ended problem-solving activity, so the guidance given here is necessarily incomplete. 
• There are no significant hazards associated with this experiment.

Possible approaches

Questions to ask students who need help are:

• Do you think magnets should work?
• What about a sieve?
• A home-made sieve?
• Could you use tweezers and a hand lens to pick out the pieces?
• What about using water? – Floaters/sinkers, dissolving.

Few students realise that only a small amount of water is needed to dissolve the salt. If a large amount of water is used, it can take a long time to evaporate.

The final drying of the salt and the sand can be done in an oven.

Possible extension

Students could design a large scale separation plant that works continuously. Separate chocolate bits from chocolate chip cookies.

Mrs Johal's class

Additional information.

The resources were originally published in the book In Search of Solution P. Borrows, K. Davies and R. Lewin, Royal Society of Chemistry, 1990.

This experiment was based on an idea contributed by P. Borrows.

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Separation of Sand and Common Salt

• December 2, 2023

Experiment 1: SEPARATION OF SAND AND COMMON SALT

SEPARATION OF SAND AND COMMON SALT IN PURE AND DRY STATE FROM ITS MIXTURE.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

• Filter Paper
• Porcelain basin.

CHEMICAL REQUIRED

i. Sand and common salt ii. Silver Nitrate (AgNO 3 )

When a mixture of a soluble and insoluble solid is dissolved into a proper solvent, one component gets dissolved, leaving behind another undissolved component. Then each component from the mixture can be separated by filtration followed by successive physio-chemical treatment.

Filtration is the process of separating the water-insoluble component of the solution using a porous medium like filter paper. The insoluble component remains in filter paper as residue. The soluble component obtained is called filtrate. The filtrate contains sodium chloride solution and pure sand is obtained by the washing of water and pure salt is obtained by evaporation of filtrate.

The mixture of sand and common salt is taken in a beaker and salt is dissolved in a minimum amount of water by slightly stirring. The mixture containing solution is allowed to settle down and decant off the supernatant clear liquid. The supernatant liquid is filtered and the salt solution is collected in a porcelain basin. The filtrate taken in the basin is slowly evaporated to get common salt. Water is added to the sand-containing beaker and the mixture again. If the filter gives white ppt with silver nitrate, then the residue is again washed with water. The filter paper is carefully taken out from the funnel and dried over the Bunsen burner. The salt obtained in the porcelain basin is taken out by using a spatula in filter paper.

PURITY TEST (AgNO 3 test)

TEST REACTION

Hence, the mixture of sand and common salt was separated in a pure and dry state.

A mixture of water-soluble and insoluble substances can be separated by filtration followed by evaporation.

PRECAUTIONS

i. Salt solution should be dissolved in a minimum amount of water. ii. The solution should not come up to the rim of the Filter paper iii. Heat should be gentle. iv. Apparatus should be handled carefully.

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June 7, 2012

Salty Science: How to Separate Soluble Solutions

A fun chemistry challenge from Science Buddies

By Science Buddies

Key concepts Chemistry Solubility Water Temperature Introduction Have you ever mixed sand and salt together and wondered how you could separate them again? If you had to separate them, would you have nightmares of tiny tweezers, a magnifying glass and hours spent picking grains of salt and sand apart? Don't be afraid, there is another way! Using the differences in solubility between salt and sand, you can find the simple "solution" to this problem. Background Chemistry for the most part is the study of matter and how it behaves and interacts with other kinds of matter. Everything around us is made of matter. One important property that matter has is solubility. We think about this when we dissolve something in water. If a chemical is soluble in water, then when you add it to water it will dissolve, or disappear. If it is not soluble, then the chemical will not dissolve and you can see it, either suspended in the water or at the bottom of the container. When a chemical is dissolved in a liquid, such as water, it creates a solution. In a solution, the liquid is the solvent, and the soluble chemical that is added to and dissolves in the liquid is the solute. Even though a solvent dissolves a solute, the latter blends in but is still there. If you evaporated all of the liquid from the solution, you would be left with the dry solute again. In fact, this is how salt is processed in giant salt flats where seawater is slowly evaporated, leaving behind huge amounts of sea salt. Materials •    Strainer (optional) •    Salt •    Sand •    A napkin •    Magnifying glass •    Two glass jars with lids •    Measuring cup •    Water •    Teakettle or pot •    Two spoons •    Stove and oven •    Funnel •    Coffee filter •    Spoon •    Oven mitts Preparation •    If the sand has a lot of debris in it, use a strainer to strain out the large debris and purify the sand. •    Place some salt and sand separately on a napkin and, using the magnifying glass, closely examine the salt and sand. What do you notice? How does the size, shape and color of the grains of sand compare with the grains of salt? •    Be careful when using the stove and oven, and when handling the boiling water. An adult should help you with these steps. Procedure •    In a glass jar add one quarter cup of salt and one quarter cup of sand. Put the lid on the jar and shake until the salt and sand are completely mixed together.* •    Using the magnifying lens, closely examine the mixture. What do you notice? Can you still see the individual grains of salt and sand? •    Fill the teakettle or pot with at least one cup of water. Heat the water on the stove until it is boiling. Be careful when using the stove and handling the boiling water. An adult should help you with this. •    Very carefully pour one half cup of boiling water into the jar and stir the mixture with a spoon. Be careful when handling the boiling water, which will make the jar become very hot! (Caution: You should pour the water very slowly, so the glass jar does not shatter from a rapid change in temperature.) •    Using the magnifying lens, closely examine the solution. What do you notice? Can you still see the individual grains of salt and sand? •    Place the coffee filter in the funnel and place the funnel on top of the second glass jar. Slowly pour the entire solution over the filter. As the solution seeps through the filter, let it collect in the second jar. •    Looking at the coffee filter, what do you see? Carefully scrape off any particles from the coffee filter with a spoon and place them in the first jar. •    Turn the oven on to 325 degrees Fahrenheit. Be careful when using the oven and ask an adult to help you with this. Place both jars on to a cookie sheet and bake them in the oven until all of the water has evaporated from them. This may take over an hour. When you check on the jars to see how much water has evaporated, what do you notice? •    Turn off the oven and let it cool down. (When glass changes temperature very quickly, it can shatter.) Then, using oven mitts, carefully remove the jars and allow them to cool to room temperature. They will probably still be very hot! •    After the jars are cool, closely examine their contents using the magnifying glass. What do you notice? Can you still see the individual grains of salt and sand? Are they mixed together or separated? •    Extra : At the end of this activity, you can carefully use a measuring cup to measure the amount of salt and sand you ended up with. Do these amounts match the amounts you started with? Why do you think this happened? •    Extra : Many different chemicals have different degrees of solubility. By adding different amounts of salt, sugar or baking soda to water you can see how soluble each chemical is. Just add each chemical, one teaspoon at a time, to a half-full glass of water until you notice that it no longer dissolves when you stir it. Which chemical is the most soluble (dissolves the most into the same amount of water); which chemical is the least soluble? •    Extra : How might temperature affect the solubility of a chemical? Try dissolving the same amount of sugar in hot water, room-temperature water and ice-cold water, using the same amount of water each time. What happens? Can you think of other variables that might affect solubility?

* Correction (6/11/12): The sentence was edited after posting to remove reference to liquids; at this stage in the activity, only solids —sand and salt— have been mixed.

Observations and results When you added the boiling water, did the salt dissolve or disappear? After drying in the oven, did the salt appear in the second jar and mostly the sand was in the first jar? Salt is soluble in water whereas sand is insoluble (not dissolvable ) in water. If sand were soluble in water, we would not have beautiful sandy beaches! Because of this, when the boiling water was added to the mixture of salt and sand, the salt should have dissolved, or disappeared, whereas the sand stayed visible, creating a dark brown solution with possibly some sand particles stuck on the walls of the jar. Temperature can affect the solubility of a chemical, and in the case of salt in water the hot temperature of the boiling water improved the salt's ability to dissolve in it. The dissolved salt should have easily made its way through the coffee filter and into the second jar whereas the muddy, undissolved sand particles became stuck on the coffee filter (possibly mixed with some salt as well). After the liquid in the two jars was evaporated in the oven, the salt in the second jar should have become apparent again, mostly as a crusty white substance along the sides and the bottom of the second jar. More to explore Matter from Chem4Kids.com Solutions from Chem4Kids.com A Soluble Separation Solution from Science Buddies

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Separating common salt and sand

• Show Solutions 1. Sodium Chloride 2. No. Magnesium Sulfate is soluble and so would be present in the filtrate too. 3. Find the melting point of the solid. If it was impure, the melting point would be lower and not as precise/sharp.

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How can you separate a mixture of sand, salt and water?

In this lesson we will learn about how to separate soluble and insoluble solids from water.

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Lesson details

Key learning points.

• Define 'solution', 'solute', 'solvent', 'soluble' and 'insoluble'
• Describe how to use filtration to separate some mixtures
• Describe how you can use evaporation to separate some mixtures

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