apa research memo

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How to Write an APA Formatted Memo

Schools and colleges use memos to communicate information about problems and solutions. Writing a properly formatted APA-style memo ensures that you are presenting this information in a clear and coherent fashion. American Psychological Association style is used to format documents and cite sources in social sciences.

APA Style and Parts of a Memo

Memos formatted according to APA’s formatting guidelines start with a clear heading including information about whom the memo is addressed to, whom it is from, the date it was sent and its subject. The body of the memo follows, including a detailed description of the memo’s subject. You may break this description up into subsections. The memo concludes with a brief, one or two sentence summary of the memo’s contents, as well as a note indicating the names and types of attachments you included with the memo if this applies.

Identify the Audience and Purpose

Purdue’s Online Writing Lab recommends identifying the audience and purpose of your memo carefully. The audience -- the people the memo is addressed to -- should be the people in your company who are affected by the subject of the memo. The purpose of the memo should be geared toward this readership. APA style recommends using active voice when communicating these ideas. For example, you might open a memo by writing, “This memo describes a problem related to teacher interactions some of our students have been recently experiencing.”

Follow APA Format Guidelines

According to Purdue’s OWL, memos follow standard business or technical writing guidelines. This means they should be single-spaced and left-justified, and should use a common font such as Times New Roman or Arial. As shorter documents, APA-formatted memos should be no longer than two pages, and most will be around one page. Rather than indenting new paragraphs, skip two lines before starting a new paragraph. If you use headings to break up the content of your memo, use a text format that sets the heading apart; for example, use bold face text or underline the heading.

Use a Ratio to Structure Your Memo

Purdue’s OWL recommends breaking the memo up according to the following ratio: The heading should be one-eighth of the memo, the opening description of the audience and purpose should be one-quarter of the length, the discussion of the subject one-half of the length, and the closing segment, summary and note about attachments the remaining one-eighth of the memo. Though a rough guideline, this breakdown will ensure that you do not spend too much time describing the audience and purpose, or not enough time describing the subject of the memo.

• Purdue's Online Writing Lab: Memos
• Purdue's Online Writing Lab: APA Formatting General Format
• Purdue's Online Writing Lab: APA Formatting Stylistics Basics
• APA Style: Learning APA Style

Samuel Hamilton has been writing since 2002. His work has appeared in “The Penn,” “The Antithesis,” “New Growth Arts Review" and “Deek” magazine. Hamilton holds a Master of Arts in English education from the University of Pittsburgh, and a Master of Arts in composition from the University of Florida.

The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 2: Handling Qualitative Data

• Handling qualitative data
• Transcripts
• Field notes
• Introduction

What is a research memo?

How do you write a memo for a study, examples of analytic memos.

• Survey data and responses
• Visual and audio data
• Data organization
• Data coding
• Coding frame
• Auto and smart coding
• Organizing codes
• Qualitative data analysis
• Content analysis
• Thematic analysis
• Thematic analysis vs. content analysis
• Narrative research
• Phenomenological research
• Discourse analysis
• Grounded theory
• Deductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning
• Inductive vs. deductive reasoning
• Qualitative data interpretation
• Qualitative data analysis software

Research memos

Depending on who you ask, a memo is or isn't research data . On the one hand, a memo is not data because it's not directly based on what you see or hear. On the other hand, a memo is data because it ultimately informs and shapes the knowledge generated through data analysis .

Either way, memo writing is a crucial element of a rigorous qualitative research study. As the researcher is the most important part of the data collection process , even a memo as short as one page can be helpful in providing a more focused analytical lens for your study.

A research memo, also known as an analytical or reflective memo, is an integral part of the qualitative research process . It is a written record where researchers document their thoughts, interpretations, and reflections about the data collected during the research process. The concept of using short writings to reflect on data collection was widely introduced by grounded theory but has since been incorporated into various qualitative methods due to its effectiveness in fostering a deeper understanding and ensuring rigor in analysis .

Unlike formal research reports that are typically intended for a target audience, memos are internal documents intended for the researchers themselves. They capture the researcher's thought process and help in tracking the progression of ideas, thus serving as a window into the mental workspace of the researcher.

What is the purpose of memoing in qualitative research?

The primary purpose of memoing in qualitative research is to foster reflexivity and analytical thinking during the data collection and analysis processes. This is achieved by encouraging researchers to engage deeply with their study, reflect on their thoughts, and document their interpretations.

In the early stages of the research process, memos help researchers articulate their initial impressions and tentative propositions. As your study progresses, memoing facilitates constant comparison , wherein new data is continuously compared with previous data and existing interpretations. This iterative process helps researchers identify patterns, formulate theoretical concepts, and build a coherent analytical narrative.

Moreover, memos also play a crucial role in ensuring the transparency and trustworthiness of the research. They provide a detailed record of the analytical journey, making it possible for others to trace the development of the researcher's thinking and understand the rationale behind their conclusions. This enhances the credibility and dependability of the research.

What should be included in a research memo?

Although the contents of a research memo can vary depending on the research context and the researcher's preferences, the following elements are typically included:

Date and identifier: Each memo should have a date and an identifier, such as a title or a code, to facilitate easy retrieval, like a subject line helps organize emails. The identifier often refers to the specific data source or theme that the memo pertains to.

Summary of data: The memo should include a brief summary of the relevant data. This provides context for the researcher's reflections and interpretations.

Reflections and interpretations: The main body of the memo consists of the researcher's reflections and interpretations of the data. This might include initial impressions, emerging patterns, tentative propositions, theoretical insights, or questions for further exploration. Researchers are encouraged to write freely and openly without worrying too much about style or coherence at this stage.

Connections to other memos or data: If the reflections in a memo relate to or contradict reflections in another memo or data source, this should be noted. This helps in identifying connections and discrepancies and facilitates the constant comparison process.

Next steps: Lastly, the memo might include a note on the next steps. This could be potential plans for further data collection, areas for deeper analysis, or strategies for validating the interpretations .

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Before delving into the process of writing a memo for a study, it is essential to understand the flexible and iterative nature of memoing. Writing a memo is not a linear process but a reflexive practice that intertwines with the data collection and analysis processes. Thus, the first step in writing a memo is to immerse oneself in the data. This might involve reading and rereading transcripts , observing visual data, or listening to audio recordings .

While immersing yourself in the data, remain open and attentive to anything that strikes your interest or raises questions. These might be patterns, discrepancies, intriguing statements, or points of confusion. Jot down these initial observations as you encounter them. They serve as the starting points for your memos.

Crafting your research memo

Having set the groundwork, you can now begin to craft your research memo. Despite the structure outlined earlier, remember that memoing is a flexible process. Feel free to adjust the format to suit your needs and the specificities of your research context. Remember that while memoing is an essential part of the process, it is more intended for your reflection than it is for consumption by your eventual audience.

Nurturing the habit of memoing

The practice of memoing is a habit that develops over time. In the initial stages, you might find it challenging to write memos consistently or know what to write about. However, as you immerse yourself in your data and engage deeply with your memos, you will find that the process becomes more intuitive and enriching.

Regularly set aside time for memoing in your schedule. This could be after each data collection session or at the end of each day. Also, periodically review your memos to trace the evolution of your thoughts, draw connections across memos, and identify areas for further exploration.

It's important to remember that memos are not final documents but tools for thinking and learning. Don't worry about getting everything right in the first go. Embrace the uncertainty, allow your thoughts to evolve, and revise your memos as your understanding deepens.

Let's close this section by providing some memo examples. A sample memo can help guide your thinking on how to pursue these memos, so we will look at three different samples from different fields.

Memo example 1: Anthropological study on local food practices Identifier: Memo_Local_Food_Practices_20230502

Summary of data: Field notes from a visit to the local farmer's market in town A, where I observed and interacted with several vendors and consumers.

Reflections and interpretations: A strong sense of community permeates the local farmer's market. Vendors and consumers engage in lengthy conversations, not only about the products but also about personal life events and local happenings. There's an evident pride in locally grown and sourced products, pointing towards a shared value system centered on sustainability and community support.

Connections to other memos or data: This observation aligns with previous interviews where participants expressed their commitment to supporting local businesses. However, it contrasts with the supermarket observation memo where transactions were impersonal and product-centered. Next steps: Plan follow-up interviews with vendors and regular customers to understand the values and motivations underlying their participation in the farmer's market.

Memo example 2: Educational study on remote learning experiences Identifier: Memo_RemoteLearningExperience_Interview3_20230530

Summary of data: Transcript from an interview with a high school student, Jane, who shifted to remote learning due to pandemic constraints.

Reflections and interpretations: Jane expressed a sense of isolation and disconnection from peers, which negatively impacted her motivation to learn. She mentioned the lack of spontaneous interactions and group activities that usually happened in physical classrooms. Yet, she also appreciated the flexibility and autonomy remote learning provided.

Connections to other memos or data: Jane's experience mirrors sentiments expressed in other interviews regarding social isolation. The appreciation of flexibility was also echoed in the memo about the parents' perspective on remote learning.

Next steps: Investigate ways schools are or could be promoting social interactions in the remote learning context. This will involve reviewing literature and policy documents and considering additional interviews with educators.

Memo example 3: Market research on the smartphone industry Identifier: Memo_SmartphoneIndustry_FocusGroup1_20230602

Summary of data: Transcript from a focus group discussion involving six participants who recently purchased smartphones from various brands.

Reflections and interpretations: Participants' purchasing decisions were influenced by a range of factors including brand reputation, price, features, and word-of-mouth recommendations. Interestingly, participants demonstrated limited awareness of the market share of various brands.

Connections to other memos or data: This observation connects with the Brand Image Analysis memo, which highlighted Brand A's efforts to differentiate itself through superior user experience.

Next steps: Further explore how the perception of the product's share of the market influences purchasing decisions. Also, investigate the correlation between user experience and customer loyalty, especially for brands with smaller market shares.

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Writing Center Memos: Memos

For most organizations, a memo is synonymous with an email. A business memo is a short document used to transmit information within an organization.

Writing a Professional Memo

Keep the following tips in mind when constructing professional memos or emails:.

• Email addresses : When sending an email, include the name(s) of those you are sending to on the “To” line. If you want to include others simply to make them aware that you have sent the email, include them on the “Cc” line.
• Subject Line : The subject line should be short and meaningful. Depending on the purpose of the email, the subject line may simply be a summary of the contents of the email (Sales Meeting Minutes from 11/15) or perhaps a request for action (Weekly Sales Meeting Agenda Items Needed).
• Greeting : The greeting addresses the message to the person or group you are sending it to. Formal business emails use “Dear” in the greeting (Dear Mr. Brown,). Typically, however, you will simply use the person’s first name (Hi John, or simply John,) or some sort of identifying name for the group (Dear Sales Team, or Greetings Sales Team!).
• State specifically what you want.
• Provide a short explanation. A bulleted list may be used here to make the information easier to read quickly.
• Indicate the response or action needed from those receiving the email as well as a due date.
• Express appreciation in advance for the response or action and perhaps include a comment on the importance or benefit of providing the response or completing the action.
• Add your contact information.
• Include with a closing (Thanks, or Regards, perhaps). This is optional.
• Signature Block : If the email is formal, include a signature block that displays your contact information, including name, title, department, company, email address, and phone numbers. Many times, a specific format for the signature block is provided to you by your organization, and you are required to use it on all emails.
• Attachments : If you include attachments with the email, mention the attachments within the body of the email to make sure the recipient is aware of the attachment(s).
• References : If you include references in your memo, you should follow standard APA 7 in-text citation guidelines , as well as include a references page on a new page following your memo with full citations .

Sample Memos

See this example of how to write an email requesting action from a group., see this example of how to write an email proposing a solution to a problem., see this example of how to write an email reminding employees of a policy..

• Last Updated: Dec 6, 2022 9:35 AM
• URL: https://csuglobal.libguides.com/memos

•   [email protected]

APA Style: Basics

Guidelines: paper format.

The APA Style website includes a great section on Paper Format This link opens in a new window . The 7th edition of APA Style has two types of papers: student papers and professional papers. Please consult your assignment or reach out to your professor or instructor to determine which paper format you should use.

For more information see the above page or the sections linked below:

• Order of pages This link opens in a new window
• Title page This link opens in a new window
• Font This link opens in a new window
• Page header This link opens in a new window
• Line spacing This link opens in a new window
• Margins This link opens in a new window
• Paragraph alignment & indentation This link opens in a new window
• Tables setup This link opens in a new window
• Figures setup This link opens in a new window
• Headings This link opens in a new window
• Accessibility This link opens in a new window
• Numbers and Statistics Guide This link opens in a new window

Sample Papers

The APA Style website also includes Sample Papers This link opens in a new window . 

APA Style Sample Papers

• Annotated Student Sample Paper [links to PDF] This link opens in a new window
• Student Sample Paper [links to DOCX] This link opens in a new window
• Annotated Professional Sample Paper [links to PDF] This link opens in a new window
• Professional Sample Paper [links to DOCX] This link opens in a new window

SNHU OWC Sample Papers

• APA 7th Edition Sample Paper (SNHU OWC) [pdf] This link opens in a new window APA 7th Edition Sample Paper from the Academic Support Center
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APA Formatting and Citation (7th Ed.) | Generator, Template, Examples

Published on November 6, 2020 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on September 5, 2024.

The 7th edition of the APA Publication Manual provides guidelines for clear communication , citing sources , and formatting documents. This article focuses on paper formatting.

Generate accurate APA citations with Scribbr

Throughout your paper, you need to apply the following APA format guidelines:

• Set page margins to 1 inch on all sides.
• Double-space all text, including headings.
• Indent the first line of every paragraph 0.5 inches.
• Use an accessible font (e.g., Times New Roman 12pt., Arial 11pt., or Georgia 11pt.).
• Include a page number on every page.

Let an expert format your paper

Our APA formatting experts can help you to format your paper according to APA guidelines. They can help you with:

• Margins, line spacing, and indentation
• Font and headings
• Running head and page numbering

Table of contents

How to set up apa format (with template), apa alphabetization guidelines, apa format template [free download], page header, headings and subheadings, reference page, tables and figures, frequently asked questions about apa format.

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References are ordered alphabetically by the first author’s last name. If the author is unknown, order the reference entry by the first meaningful word of the title (ignoring articles: “the”, “a”, or “an”).

Why set up APA format from scratch if you can download Scribbr’s template for free?

Student papers and professional papers have slightly different guidelines regarding the title page, abstract, and running head. Our template is available in Word and Google Docs format for both versions.

• Student paper: Word | Google Docs
• Professional paper: Word | Google Docs

In an APA Style paper, every page has a page header. For student papers, the page header usually consists of just a page number in the page’s top-right corner. For professional papers intended for publication, it also includes a running head .

A running head is simply the paper’s title in all capital letters. It is left-aligned and can be up to 50 characters in length. Longer titles are abbreviated .

APA headings have five possible levels. Heading level 1 is used for main sections such as “ Methods ” or “ Results ”. Heading levels 2 to 5 are used for subheadings. Each heading level is formatted differently.

Want to know how many heading levels you should use, when to use which heading level, and how to set up heading styles in Word or Google Docs? Then check out our in-depth article on APA headings .

The title page is the first page of an APA Style paper. There are different guidelines for student and professional papers.

Both versions include the paper title and author’s name and affiliation. The student version includes the course number and name, instructor name, and due date of the assignment. The professional version includes an author note and running head .

For more information on writing a striking title, crediting multiple authors (with different affiliations), and writing the author note, check out our in-depth article on the APA title page .

The abstract is a 150–250 word summary of your paper. An abstract is usually required in professional papers, but it’s rare to include one in student papers (except for longer texts like theses and dissertations).

The abstract is placed on a separate page after the title page . At the top of the page, write the section label “Abstract” (bold and centered). The contents of the abstract appear directly under the label. Unlike regular paragraphs, the first line is not indented. Abstracts are usually written as a single paragraph without headings or blank lines.

Directly below the abstract, you may list three to five relevant keywords . On a new line, write the label “Keywords:” (italicized and indented), followed by the keywords in lowercase letters, separated by commas.

APA Style does not provide guidelines for formatting the table of contents . It’s also not a required paper element in either professional or student papers. If your instructor wants you to include a table of contents, it’s best to follow the general guidelines.

Place the table of contents on a separate page between the abstract and introduction. Write the section label “Contents” at the top (bold and centered), press “Enter” once, and list the important headings with corresponding page numbers.

The APA reference page is placed after the main body of your paper but before any appendices . Here you list all sources that you’ve cited in your paper (through APA in-text citations ). APA provides guidelines for formatting the references as well as the page itself.

Creating APA Style references

Play around with the Scribbr Citation Example Generator below to learn about the APA reference format of the most common source types or generate APA citations for free with Scribbr’s APA Citation Generator .

Formatting the reference page

Write the section label “References” at the top of a new page (bold and centered). Place the reference entries directly under the label in alphabetical order.

Finally, apply a hanging indent , meaning the first line of each reference is left-aligned, and all subsequent lines are indented 0.5 inches.

Tables and figures are presented in a similar format. They’re preceded by a number and title and followed by explanatory notes (if necessary).

Use bold styling for the word “Table” or “Figure” and the number, and place the title on a separate line directly below it (in italics and title case). Try to keep tables clean; don’t use any vertical lines, use as few horizontal lines as possible, and keep row and column labels concise.

Keep the design of figures as simple as possible. Include labels and a legend if needed, and only use color when necessary (not to make it look more appealing).

Check out our in-depth article about table and figure notes to learn when to use notes and how to format them.

The easiest way to set up APA format in Word is to download Scribbr’s free APA format template for student papers or professional papers.

Alternatively, you can watch Scribbr’s 5-minute step-by-step tutorial or check out our APA format guide with examples.

APA Style papers should be written in a font that is legible and widely accessible. For example:

• Times New Roman (12pt.)
• Arial (11pt.)
• Calibri (11pt.)
• Georgia (11pt.)

The same font and font size is used throughout the document, including the running head , page numbers, headings , and the reference page . Text in footnotes and figure images may be smaller and use single line spacing.

You need an APA in-text citation and reference entry . Each source type has its own format; for example, a webpage citation is different from a book citation .

Use Scribbr’s free APA Citation Generator to generate flawless citations in seconds or take a look at our APA citation examples .

Yes, page numbers are included on all pages, including the title page , table of contents , and reference page . Page numbers should be right-aligned in the page header.

To insert page numbers in Microsoft Word or Google Docs, click ‘Insert’ and then ‘Page number’.

APA format is widely used by professionals, researchers, and students in the social and behavioral sciences, including fields like education, psychology, and business.

Be sure to check the guidelines of your university or the journal you want to be published in to double-check which style you should be using.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Streefkerk, R. (2024, September 05). APA Formatting and Citation (7th Ed.) | Generator, Template, Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 15, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/format/

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APA (7th ed.): Citation Examples & Essential Rules

   For NPS theses, papers, and publications: to cite properly, follow the citation examples and apply the essential rules.

• APA Example List of References

Citation Examples

Essential Rules

Author as publisher.

When the author and the publisher are the same, omit the publisher information from the reference entry to avoid repetition.

Author Names: Honorifics

Do not include honorifics (Dr., Col., Professor, etc.) when citing author names. Including these titles in the body of your document is acceptable.

Identifying Authors of Official Documents

For the National Security Strategy , cite the president as the author.

For other official documents , the author is the organization immediately responsible for creating the document. In the example below, the author is the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations and the publisher is the Department of the Navy.

In the example above, the author is NOT an umbrella organization, signatory, or any of the following:

• Chief of Naval Operations
• Deputy Chief of Naval Operations
• W. F. Moran
• Department of Defense
• Navy Pentagon
• R. P. Burke
• United States of America​

Do not include acronyms for organizations listed as authors in the List of References or footnotes:

• YES: Office of the Chief of Naval Operations.
• NO: Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO or OCNO).
• NO: CNO or OCNO.

Bibliography vs. List of References

What is the difference between them.

• A List of References  includes all works cited in a text
• A Bibliography  lists all works cited  and consulted

The NPS Thesis Processing Office prefers a List of References for the following: 

• Capstone project report
• Dissertation

For papers, check with your professors for their preference.

Capitalization: Title Case vs. Sentence case

Note: Always format the information in your citations (titles, author names, etc.) according to the requirements of the citation style you are using, regardless of how it appears in the original source.

Country Names with Government Organizations

When naming government organizations, be consistent: for example, either Department of Defense or U.S. Department of Defense. If citing organizations from multiple countries, ensure that it is clear which organization is associated with which country—for example, Australian Department of Defence, South African Department of Defence, Sri Lanka Ministry of Defence, Singapore Ministry of Defence.

Every equation that is not field-specific common knowledge needs to be cited. You may weave the source into the narrative:

• The next step was to apply the X method (Ochoa, 2022), to describe ...
• Ochoa (2022) summarizes the derivation as follows ...

Here is an example of citing properly before the equation. Note the period at the end. Equations must function grammatically as part of the text:

Adapted from Moreau, P. P. (2022).  A cost-effectiveness analysis of C-12 variant airborne ISR capabilities in the Marine Corps  [Master's thesis, Naval Postgraduate School], NPS Archive: Calhoun. https://calhoun.nps.edu/handle/10945/69689

And here is an example of how to cite an equation after it is presented:

Adapted from Moreau, P. P. (2022).  A cost-effectiveness analysis of C-12 variant airborne ISR capabilities in the Marine Corps  [Master's thesis, Naval Postgraduate School], NPS Archive: Calhoun. https://calhoun.nps.edu/handle/10945/69689

Figures / Images / Graphs

A citation is required if you did not wholly create the figure—i.e., if you used someone else's image or data. A citation is not needed when all elements of the figure are your own creation.

See Figure 1 for placement of the title and the in-text citation.

• Put a period and a space after the title.
• If you use the figure exactly as it appears in the source, use “Source: ___.”
• If you alter the original figure or use someone else's image or data to create the figure, use “Adapted from ___.”

Figure 1.    A Figure with a Citation in APA, Chicago Author-Date, or INFORMS Style. Source: Author (2017).

Figure 1.    A Figure with a Citation in APA, Chicago Author-Date, or INFORMS Style. Adapted from Author (2017).

For more details, see the Thesis Template .

• Thesis Template

How Often to Cite?

• Remember: one citation at the end of a string of sentences or a paragraph cannot “cover” the entire section.  
• Cite a source the first time it is used in each paragraph.  
• Note: always use a citation (even if you also use a signal phrase) every time you quote material.

In-text Citation Placement & Signal Phrases

Where in the sentence does my in-text citation go  .

• But compare what happens when the quotation comes first: The "less than suboptimal millinerial outcomes" reported by Schartz and Metterklume (2013, p. 198), however, continue to impede the development of sufficiently dense peach-basket hats.  
• If the sentence ends with a quotation, "close the quote, then place the citation between the quotation marks and the punctuation, like this” (Woolf, 1931, p. 14).  
• Do not insert spaces between a parenthetical citation and the punctuation that follows it.

In the paragraph below, the   parenthetical in-text citations are highlighted in yellow , and the  s ignal phrases are in blue . Note that the second sentence is common knowledge, whereas the final sentence is clearly the opinion of the author.

• Using Signal Phrases Effectively

Missing Info

If any information is missing from a source (a journal with no volume number, for example), simply omit that information.  For sources consulted in hardcopy, omit the URL and any additional verbiage that introduces it. Anything retrieved online, however, MUST have a link. The only exception is journals retrieved from a subscription database such as ProQuest. 

Multiple Authors, et al.

Adapted from  American Psychological Association. (2010).  Publication manual of the American Psychological Association  (6th ed.). and   American Psychological Association. (2019).  Publication manual of the American Psychological Association  (7th ed.).

Multiple Works by the Same Author / Multiple Sources in One Citation

Examples given are for books; follow the appropriate style for the source type you are citing.

Online Sources: Links

When listing an online document (for example, a thesis, report, or journal article) in the references, if possible, provide a DOI. If the source does not have a DOI, link to the document itself (PDF, etc.) or to the landing page that directs the reader to the full text. 

• Do not insert a hard or soft return within the URL string: doing so breaks the link.
• A DOI or URL does not belong in an in-text citation. Ever.

Page Numbers and Other Locators

In-text Citations

• Include page numbers in in-text citations when citing quoted material.
• Example: (Haynes, 2009, p. 70)
• If a source does not have page numbers, include as much information as needed for the reader to locate the material. Such information might include the following:

• Do not use Kindle location numbers with in-text citations. Provide the page numbers, or use one of the options above.
• In citations especially of shorter electronic works presented as a single, searchable document, such locators may be unnecessary.

See:  Direct Quotation of Material Without Page Numbers

List of References/Bibliography

• For portions of larger documents, such as journal articles and book chapters , include the  page range. Example: Cordesman, A. H., Mausner, A., & Kasten, D. (2009). Introduction. In J. Smith (Ed.), Winning in Afghanistan: Creating Effective Afghan Security Forces (pp. 1–12). Center for Strategic and International Studies.

Print vs. Online Sources

When citing a source retrieved online, use the "online" format even when you or someone else printed out the material. For example, if you print out a thesis or your advisor provides you with a printed thesis, it is still categorized as an online document.

Only cite as a print source when the material has been produced by a publisher in hard copy. For example, if you obtain a print journal or book from the library stacks, it is categorized as a printed source.

Retrieval Dates

Only include date retrieved if the source material has no date.

Secondary / Indirect Sources

An indirect source is a source that cites some other work that you discuss in your text.

Whenever possible, consult primary sources and your sources’ sources yourself. Upon investigation of the primary source, you may find you disagree with the indirect source author’s analysis or methods.

How to Incorporate Indirect Sources

The following passage incorporates a properly credited indirect source. The indirect source information is highlighted in yellow; the primary source information is highlighted in blue.

Walker (2008) describes Miguel Roig's 1999 experiment , which correlates inadequate paraphrasing in student writing with poor reading comprehension. Citing Roig’s data , Walker explains that "students do in fact possess skills necessary for paraphrasing but … may be impeded from applying those skills when dealing with rigorous text"  (p. 387) .

Note: Include only the indirect source (the source  you  consulted) in your reference list. 

For more information

See the TPO's " Citing Your Sources’ Sources " handout.

A citation is required if you did not wholly create the table—i.e., if you used someone else's data. A citation is not needed when all elements of the table are your own creation.

See Table 1 for placement of the title and the in-text citation.

• If you use the table exactly as it appears in the source, use “Source: ___.”
• If you alter the original table or if you use someone else's data to create the table, use “Adapted from ___.”

Table 1.    A Table with a Citation in APA, Chicago Author-Date, or INFORMS Style. Source: Author (2017).

Table 1.     A Table with a Citation in APA, Chicago Author-Date, or INFORMS Style. Adapted from Author (2017).

For more details, see the  Thesis Template .

Translations and Works Not in English

For works with a translator, follow the format for edited sources but substitute "translated" for "edited" in the list of references. 

R: Manqué,  M. Old and rejected poems. (1989). Translated by Hickinson, P. Narrow Fellow Press.

For works in languages other than English, format the title in sentence case , then give the translation, also in sentence case, in square brackets immediately following:

R: Manqué, M. (1992).  "L'esthétique de l'échec" [The aesthetics of failure]. In Sweeney H. (Ed.),  Éviter les clichés et des autres clichés [Avoiding clichés and other clichés], edited by Sweeney,  H. 3–44. Stew & Offspring.

Additional Resources

• APA Style Blog Online companion to the print guide.
• APA Style Guide (print) 7th ed. 2020.
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APA 7th Edition Citation Examples

• Volume and Issue Numbers
• Page Numbers
• Undated Sources
• Citing a Source Within a Source
• In-Text Citations
• Academic Journals
• Encyclopedia Articles
• Book, Film, and Product Reviews
• Online Classroom Materials
• Conference Papers

Format for technical and research reports

• Court Decisions
• Treaties and Other International Agreements
• Federal Regulations: I. The Code of Federal Regulations
• Federal Regulations: II. The Federal Register
• Executive Orders
• Charter of the United Nations
• Federal Statutes
• Dissertations and Theses
• Interviews, E-mail Messages + Other Personal Communications
• Social Media
• Business Sources
• PowerPoints
• AI: ChatGPT, etc.

Author last name, first initial. (Date).  Title of report  (Publication No.). Publisher. DOI or URL

• Author:  List the last name, followed by the first initial (and second initial). See  Authors  for more information.
• Date:  List the date between parentheses, followed by a period
• Title of report:  In italics. Capitalize the first word of the title, subtitle, and proper nouns.
• Publication number: Omit if unavailable for the source that you're citing
• Publisher:  List the report's publisher. If the publisher is the same as the author, do not list the name a second time.
• DOI or URL:  List DOI or URL if available

See specific examples below.

U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2010). Information security: Concerted effort needed to consolidate and secure Internet connections at federal agencies (Publication No. GAO-10-237). http://www.gao.gov/assets/310/301876.pdf

U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2010). Information security: Concerted effort needed to consolidate and secure Internet connections at federal agencies (Publication No. GAO-10-237).

See  Publication Manual , 10.4.

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Personal Communications

Works that cannot be recovered by readers are cited in the text as personal communications. Personal communications include emails, text messages, online chats or direct messages, personal interviews, telephone conversations, live speeches, nonarchived social media livestreams (e.g., Instagram Live, Twitter Spaces), unrecorded webinars, unrecorded classroom lectures, memos, letters, messages from nonarchived discussion groups or online bulletin boards, and so on.

Use a personal communication citation only when a recoverable source is not available. For example, if you learned about a topic via a classroom lecture, it would be preferable to cite the research on which the instructor based the lecture. However, if the lecture contained original content not published elsewhere, cite the lecture as a personal communication.

When communications are recoverable only in an archive (e.g., a presidential library), cite them as archival materials . Likewise, if a live social media event was recorded and is now available on another platform (e.g., an Instagram Live video recorded and saved to a public YouTube video), use the corresponding template to create the reference (e.g., create a YouTube reference for the Instagram Live video available on YouTube).

Do not use a personal communication citation for quotes or information from participants whom you interviewed as part of your own original research; instead, quote those participants directly.

Personal communications are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 8.9 and the Concise Guide Section 8.9

Citing personal communications in the text

Because readers cannot retrieve the information in personal communications, personal communications are not included in the reference list; they are cited in the text only. Give the initial(s) and surname of the communicator, and provide as exact a date as possible, using the following formats:

Narrative citation: E.-M. Paradis (personal communication, August 8, 2019)

Parenthetical citation: (T. Nguyen, personal communication, February 24, 2020)

Citing information from Traditional Knowledge or Oral Traditions of Indigenous Peoples

The manner of citing Traditional Knowledge or Oral Traditions (other terms are “Traditional Stories” and “Oral Histories”) of Indigenous Peoples varies depending on whether and how the information has been recorded—only certain cases use a variation of the personal communication citation.

• If the information has been recorded and is recoverable by readers (e.g., video, audio, interview transcript, book, article), cite it in the text and include a reference list entry in the correct format for that type of source (e.g., a recording on YouTube ).
• Also maintain the integrity of Indigenous perspectives. Examine published works carefully (especially older works) to ensure that the information about Indigenous Peoples is accurate and appropriate to share before citing those works. For example, some stories are told only at certain times of year or by certain people and may not be appropriate to cite and share in a paper.

To describe Traditional Knowledge or Oral Traditions that are not recorded (and therefore are not recoverable by readers), provide as much detail in the in-text citation as is necessary to describe the content and to contextualize the origin of the information. For example, if you spoke with an Indigenous person directly to learn information (but they were not a research participant), use a variation of the personal communication citation.

• Provide the person’s full name and the nation or specific Indigenous group to which they belong, as well as their location or other details about them as relevant, followed by the words “personal communication,” and the date of the communication.
• Provide an exact date of correspondence if available; if correspondence took place over a period of time, provide a more general date or a range of dates. The date refers to when you consulted with the person, not to when the information originated.
• Ensure that the person agrees to have their name included in your paper and confirms the accuracy and appropriateness of the information you present.
• Because there is no recoverable source, a reference list entry is not used.

The following example illustrates how to incorporate these details into a variation of the personal communication citation. You might include more information or different information depending on the context of your work.

We spoke with Anna Grant (Haida Nation, lives in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, personal communication, April 2019) about traditional understandings of the world by First Nations Peoples in Canada. She described . . .

Also capitalize most terms related to Indigenous Peoples. These include names of specific groups (e.g., Cherokee, Cree, Ojibwe) and words related to Indigenous culture (e.g., Creation, the Creator, Elder, Oral Tradition, Traditional Knowledge, Vision Quest). The capitalization is intentional and demonstrates respect for Indigenous perspectives.

For more on citing information from Indigenous Peoples, including how to incorporate quotations from Indigenous research participants and how to share your own experiences if you are an Indigenous person, see Section 8.9 of the Publication Manual .

For more insights into creating works about Indigenous Peoples, also consult the following valuable resources by Indigenous writers and publishers. The APA Style team used these works as the foundation for the guidance in the Publication Manual .

International Journal of Indigenous Health. (n.d.). Defining Aboriginal Peoples within Canada . https://journals.uvic.ca/journalinfo/ijih/IJIHDefiningIndigenousPeoplesWithinCanada.pdf

Younging, G. (2018). Elements of Indigenous style: A guide for writing by and about Indigenous Peoples . Brush Education.

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Memos have a twofold purpose: they bring attention to problems, and they solve problems. They accomplish their goals by informing the reader about new information like policy changes, price increases, or by persuading the reader to take an action, such as attend a meeting, or change a current production procedure. Regardless of the specific goal, memos are most effective when they connect the purpose of the writer with the interests and needs of the reader.

Choose the audience of the memo wisely. Ensure that all of the people that the memo is addressed to need to read the memo. If it is an issue involving only one person, do not send the memo to the entire office. Also, be certain that material is not too sensitive to put in a memo; sometimes the best forms of communication are face-to-face interaction or a phone call. Memos are most effectively used when sent to a small to moderate number of people to communicate company or job objectives.