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INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

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RESEARCH. Definitions of Research. Good defines research as a “cheerful, critical, disciplined inquiry, varying in technique and method according to the nature and conditions of the problem identified, directed toward the clarification or resolution (or both) of a problem”.

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• existing knowledge
• systematic search
• good research
• crawford definition research
• valid data gathering instruments

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Definitions of Research • Good defines research as a “cheerful, critical, disciplined inquiry, varying in technique and method according to the nature and conditions of the problem identified, directed toward the clarification or resolution (or both) of a problem”. • Aquino has a more detailed definition of research. He says that “research is simply, simply, the systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic or problem. After a careful, systematic search for pertinent information or data on a specific topic or problem, and after the research worker has analyzed and interpreted the data, he eventually faces another essential task – that of preparing the research report”.

Research has been defined as “the process of gathering data or information to solve a particular or specific problem in a scientific manner”. • Parel defines research as “a systematic study or investigation of something for the purpose of answering questions posed by the researcher”. • Treece and Treece commented that “research in its broadest sense is an attempt to gain solutions to problems. More precisely, it is the collection of data in a rigorously controlled situation for the purpose of prediction or explanation”. • Formulated in amore comprehensive form, research may be defined as a purposive, systematic and scientific process of gathering, analyzing, classifying, organizing, presenting, and interpreting data for the solution of a problem, for prediction, for invention, for the discovery of truth, or for the expansion or verification of existing knowledge, all for the preservation and improvement of the quality of human life.

Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena. • Research is a studied inquiry or examination having for its aim the discovery of new facts and their correct interpretation; the revision of accepted conclusions, theories or laws in the lights of the newly discovered facts or the practical application of such conclusions, theories or laws.

Purpose of research (Aims, Objective, Goals) The definition of research says that research is purposive. The main or principal purpose and goal of research is the preservation and improvement of the quality of human life. All kinds of research are directed toward this end. “The purpose of research is to serve man”, and the goal of research is the good life”. Due to research, man has attained great accelerating progress and is enjoying the products of research such as the fast and comfortable land, sea, and air means of transportation, the wonders of electricity like the radio, telephone, air conditioning, light in the homes, movies, running machinery for many other countless things. “To satisfy man’s craving for more understanding, relieve suffering, and to increase satisfactions in multitudinous ways – these are the large and fundamental goals of research”.

Specific and Goals of Research • To discover new facts about known phenomena. (Alcohol phenomenon and research may turn it into a kind of fuel equal in quality to gasoline) • To find answers to problems which are only partially solved by existing methods an information. (Cancer is a serious disease which is only partially cured by present methods but due to which is only partially cured by present methods but due to intensive and continuous research, the disease may be eradicated later on) • Improve existing techniques and develop new instruments or products. (This goal envisages the invention of new gadgets and machines, food products and others used by-man) • To discover previously unrecognized substances or elements. (Previously we had only 92 elements but due to research we now have more than 100)

Discover pathways of action of known substances and elements. (Due to research we come to know the dangers from the abusive use of unprescribed drugs and some poisonous substances) • To order related, valid generalizations into systematized science. Schlofeldt. (lbid.) (The result of this purpose of research is the science we are now studying in school) • To provide basis for decision-making in business, industry, education, government, and in other undertakings. One approach in decision-making is the research approach. (This basing important decisions upon the results of research) • To satisfy the research’s curiosity • To find answer to queries by means of scientific methods. One important question that may be asked which can be answered only by means of research is: In what settings is life expectancy higher, in the city or in the barrio? • To acquire a better and deeper understanding about one phenomenon that can be known and understood better by research is why women are generally smaller that men. • To expand or verify existing knowledge. This usually happens when researches are replicated. Newly discovered facts may be found to expand knowledge gained from a previous research of verified if the same facts are found.

To improve educational practices for raising the quality of school products. Research surveys often results in the revision of curricula and instructional innovations to maximize the effectiveness of the learning process. • To promote health and prolong life. This purpose is very obviously demonstrated in pharmaceutical, nutritional, and medical research. • To provide man with more of this basic needs – more and better food, clothing, shelter, etc. the work of the International Rice Research Institute in Los Baños Laguna is a good example of this purpose • To make work, travel, and communication faster, easier, and more comfortable. Due to research airplanes are made to fly faster, land vehicles to run faster, labor-saving machines have been inverted and improved, radio, and more wonders of electricity are making life easier and better.

WHAT IS RESEARCH? • Method of inquiry for the purpose of obtaining facts in response to questions • SEARCH FOR A THEORY • TEST A THEORY • SOLVE A PROBLEM

SYSTEMATIC PRECISE ACCURATE RECORDED OBJECTIVITY CONTROLLED Series of steps & stages - problem Quantify the incidence of events - statistics Link observations and occurence Documented observations What is rather than what ought to be Elimination of factors – control THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD • CHARACTERISTICS

TENTATIVE Open to further questions SHARED Communicated to public – publish or perish NEUTRAL Not reflecting bias of investigator EMPIRICALLY VERIFIABLE Validity of results can be tested SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE • CHARACTERISTICS

Characteristics of Good Research • Crawford definition – Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments and procedure in order to obtain a more adequate solution of a problem that would be possible under ordinary means. It involves original work instead of a mere exercise of personal opinion. It evolves from a genuine desire to prove something, seeking to know not only what but how much, and measurement is therefore a central feature of it.

Research gathers new knowledge of data from primary or firsthand sources. It is not research when one merely restates or merely reorganizes what is already known or what has been written. Research places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles. It goes beyond the specific groups and situations investigated and by careful sampling procedure, infers qualities of the entire population from those observed in the smaller group. • Research is expert, systematic accurate investigation. The research knows what is already known about his problem. He proceeds from this point, carefully planning his procedures. Data are gathered, recorded, and analyzed with as much accuracy as possible. He uses such valid data-gathering instruments as he can find or devise, and employs mechanical means to improve on the accuracy of human observation, recording, and computation of data.

Research is logical objective, applying every possible test to verify the data collected and the procedures employed. The researcher constantly strives to eliminate personal feeling and preference. He resists the temptation to seek only the data that support his hypothesis. There is no attempt to persuade or to prove. The emphasis is on testing, rather than on proving the hypothesis. The researcher elevates clear thinking and logic. He suppresses feeling and emotion in his analysis. • Research endeavors to organize data in quantitative terms, if possible, and express them as numerical measures. Research is patient and unhurried. The researcher is willing to exert painstaking effort, suspending judgment to permit the data and logic to lead to a sound conclusion. He realizes that significant findings do not come as a result of hurried and careless procedures. Research requires courage. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to conclusions that may be unpopular and bring social disapproval.

Research is carefully recorded and reported. Every term is carefully defined, all procedures are described in detail, all limiting factors are recognized, all references are carefully documented, and all results are objectively recorded. All conclusions and generalizations are cautiously arrived at, with due consideration for all of the limitations of methodology, data collected, and errors of human interpretation.

Summarized Characteristics of Research • Research is systematic. It follows an orderly and sequential procedure that leads to the discovery of truth, solution of a problem, or whatever is aimed to be discovered. • Research is controlled. All variables except those that are tested or being experimented upon are kept constant (not allowed to change or vary) sot that the changes made on the subjects of the study can be attributed only to the experimental variable. This is especially true in an experimental research. • Research is empirical. All the procedures employed and the data gathered are perceived in the same manner by all observers. For instance, one says that there are five persons in the room, all agree to the existence of the five persons. However, if one may believe if because not all people believe in ghosts. Ghosts are examples of data that are not empirical.

Research is analytical. There is a critical analysis of all the data used so that there is no error in their interpretation. • Research is objective. Unbiased and logical. All the findings and conclusions are logically based on empirical data and no effort is made to alter results of the research. • Research employs hypothesis. This is to guide the investigation process. In experimental studies, hypotheses are expressly stated but in descriptive studies, the specific sub problems or specific questions serve as the hypotheses and the hypotheses are tested and not proved. • Research employs quantitative or statistical methods. Data are into numerical measures and are treated statistically to determine their significance or usefulness.

Research is original work. Except in historical research, data are gathered from primary sources or first-hand sources and not from secondary sources (usually printed materials such as books, or theses, etc.) • Research is done by an expert. The researcher uses valid and carefully designed procedures, valid data-gathering instruments, and valid data. He subjects his data to expert scrutiny. • Research is accurate investigation observation and description. In fact, every research activity must be done accurately so that the findings will lead to the formulation of scientific generations. All conclusions are based on actual evidence.

Research is patient and unhurried activity. This is to ensure accuracy. Research that is hurriedly done or conducted carelessly due to racing against time may lead to shaky conclusions and generalizations. • Research requires an effort-making capacity. No research can be conducted without the exertion of much effort. No one without any effort-making capacity can conduct a research because research involves much work and time. • Research requires courage. Research requires courage because the researcher oftentimes undergo hazards, discomforts and the like. At times the researcher encounters public and social disapproval. Also, disagreements with colleagues may arise.

HONESTY Open to Criticism SKEPTICISM CREATIVE RESOURCEFUL LOGICAL MIND PATIENCE Report all information gathered Improvement of methods & analysis Search for truth in the research process Methodologies for gathering information Explore sources of information Apply reasoning to arguments Answers to questions not immediate WHAT IS A GOOD RESEARCHER? • QUALITIES

GOOD SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH • CHARACTERISTICS • Clearly defined purpose or problem involved • Procedures described in detail, defensible, replicable • Appropriate methods of analysis • Conclusions confined by results or findings • Objectivity of researcher

BASIC • Search for knowledge for knowledge’s sake • Establish general principles • Test an aspect or expanding domain of a theory • Applications of theory to solutions of problems • Practical-solving emphasis - decisions • Closely related to action or policy needs APPLIED ACTION • Feature of applied research • Identify/solve problems in local setting • No intention of generalizing results TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

FACTS • Theory formulation • Theory reformulation/rejection • Theory clarification • Scheme for data gathering • Scheme for data analysis • Gaps in knowledge THEORY WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROCESS? • BOTH FACT-FINDING AND THEORY-BUILDING

THE RESEARCH PROCESS TOPIC & PROBLEM Variable, hypothesis, theoretical framework, definitions, significance, literature review Research design, sources of information, data collection techniques, statistical tools METHODOLOGY DATA COLLECTION DATA PROCESSING REPORT GENERATION

QUALITATIVE Derive patterns to formulate concepts and to posit interrelationships among concepts or theory building Public-Private Partnership in Development Administration: GO-NGO Collaboration in Agricultural Development Facts gathered before theory QUANTITATIVE Determine whether the predictive generalizations of the theory hold true Profile of Marine Personnel in terms of Socio-Demographic Factors and Work Performance Trace interconnections among concepts APPROACHES TO RESEARCH • Influenced by overall comfort, training and commitment of researcher

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

RESEARCH METHODS DESCRIPTIVE EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCH IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

OPERATIONS RESEARCH EVALUATION RESEARCH POLICY RESEARCH DISCIPLINE RESEARCH Recognition of a problem that affect management or organization Measure performance of programs and projects Formulation or reformulation of policy Gain knowledge for knowledge’s sake RESEARCH AREAS

INTTERRELATIONSHIPS OF RESEARCH • While a particular study is basically of a certain type, it may at the same time incorporate feature of another type IMPACT EVALUATION STUDY MAY CONSIDER ANALYSIS OF INTERNAL COMPONENTS EVALUATION RESEARCH COULD BE AN INPUT TO POLICY RESEARCH

INPUT (RESOURCES) PROCESS (ACTIVITIES) OUTPUT (PRODUCTS) Leaders Human resources Financial resources Policy statement Planning Implementation Monitoring Evaluation Services Goods Regulatory measure Manpower WHAT IS OPERATIONS RESEARCH? • Change-oriented type of research since the study is not complete unless recommendations are accepted or put in place HELP DECISION MAKERS DETERMINE WHAT CORRECTIVE MEASURES CAN BE INSTITUTED TO IMPROVE THE FLOW OF RESOURCES OR PROCESSES

ORGANIZATIONAL PROBLEM ADMIN. CAPABILITY INDICATORS PROCESSES AND PROCEDURES Problem with one or combination of inputs or processes affecting outputs Adequacy, timeliness and appropriateness used to assess inputs utilization Compliance and responsiveness of processes and procedures to needs SOURCES OF QUESTIONS • Identifying and testing the best possible solution to the problem

INTERNAL COMPONENTS OF THE ORGANIZATION Obtain information about such factors as the inputs and the process applied and its effect on outputs UNIT OF ANALYSIS • Elements from whom/which data are collected

EX-ANTE IN-VIVO EX-POST Potential performance of a program and the factors affecting program performance Relationship between inputs and outputs in terms of efficiency, productivity, profitability, economy Determine whether the program merits expansion or replication in other areas – effectiveness Feasibility Study Process Study Impact Study WHAT IS EVALUATION RESEARCH? • Concerns with the level of performance of programs and the factors that influence performance HELP POLICY MAKERS TO DETERMINE WHETHER THE PROGRAM HAS ATTAINED ITS OBJECTIVE

PROBLEM PURPOSE • Determine the potential performance (failure/success) • Determine the factors that may affect performance • Ascertain whether program is worth implementing • Determine what aspects of the program can be modified to assure success WHY USE EX-ANTE EVALUATION?

PROBLEM PURPOSE • Determine how the program is performing • Determine the factors that influence how it is being implemented • Determine what corrective measures to apply to improve implementation • Determine if the program should be stopped or continued WHY USE IN-VIVO EVALUATION?

PROBLEM PURPOSE • Determine whether the program succeeded or failed in accomplishing its mission • Determine the factors that led to success/failure • Determine whether the program merits expansion • Ascertain what aspects can be modified to improve implementation in other sites WHY USE EX-POST EVALUATION?

PERFORMANCE INDICATORS

HOW EFFECTIVENESS IS MEASURED?

INTERNAL COMPONENTS EXTERNAL COMPONENTS Inputs and processes Clients and environment SOURCES OF QUESTIONS

UNIT OF ANALYSIS • Include other elements those outside the organization PROGRAM PROJECT

WHAT IS POLICY RESEARCH? • Not all problems are policy problems ? PROBLEM ADDRESSED BY POLICY HELP POLICY MAKERS MAKE A DECISION TOWARD THE ISSUANCE OF A POLICY DIRECTIVE OR STATEMENT

VALIDATION OF A PROBLEM THAT REQUIRES POLICY INTERVENTION UNDERSTANDING OF PAST AND CURRENT POLICIES TO PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION OF POLICY OPTIONS TO ADDRESS PROBLEM DETAILING THE CONSEQUENCES OF EVERY POLICY OPTION WHAT IS POLICY RESEARCH? • Study of policy options and their implications or consequences

UNIT OF ANALYSIS POLICY OPTION TO BE EVALUATED

INTEREST IN EXPLAINING A GIVEN EVENT THAT IS NOT FULLY UNDERSTOOD WHAT IS DISCIPLINE RESEARCH? • Study conducted to formulate a theory or build on an existing one ACADEMIC RESEARCH GENERATE CONCEPTS OR BUILD THEORY

SOURCES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS • Vary depending on the interest of the researcher CHARACTERIZE LEADERSHIP THAT INFLUENCE GOOD GOVERNANCE

UNIT OF ANALYSIS • Not restricted RANGE FROM BROAD TO EXREMELY SPECIFIC

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