what is decision criteria in case study

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What are Decision Criteria? (Explained With Examples)

Sep 11, 2024

Decision criteria are essential factors that individuals or organizations consider when making a decision. They serve as the basis for evaluating different options and ultimately choosing the best course of action. In this article, we will delve into the definition of decision criteria, explore their advantages and disadvantages, and provide practical examples in various contexts, such as startups, consulting, and digital marketing agencies. We will also utilize analogies to help illustrate the concept further.

1. What are Decision Criteria?

Decision criteria encompass the specific factors that individuals or organizations prioritize when making a decision. These factors can include financial considerations, strategic objectives, customer preferences, technological feasibility, and many other relevant aspects. By establishing decision criteria, individuals or organizations can systematically evaluate different options and determine the best course of action.

When it comes to decision-making, having clear and well-defined criteria is crucial. Decision criteria serve as a set of guidelines or standards that help individuals or organizations assess and compare different alternatives. These criteria can be quantitative or qualitative, depending on the nature of the decision and the available information.

1.1 Definition of Decision Criteria

Decision criteria refer to the specific standards or benchmarks used to assess different alternatives during a decision-making process. These criteria can be quantitative or qualitative and are often tailored to the specific context or goals of the decision-making process.

Quantitative decision criteria involve measurable factors that can be assigned numerical values. For example, in a financial decision, criteria such as return on investment (ROI), net present value (NPV), or payback period may be used. These criteria provide a clear and objective basis for evaluating options.

On the other hand, qualitative decision criteria involve subjective factors that are difficult to quantify but still play a significant role in the decision-making process. These criteria can include factors such as brand reputation, customer satisfaction, or ethical considerations. While they may not have precise numerical values, they are essential for capturing the intangible aspects that influence decision outcomes.

1.2 Advantages of Decision Criteria

Using decision criteria provides several benefits. Firstly, decision criteria help ensure that all relevant aspects are taken into account, leading to more comprehensive and informed decisions. By considering a range of factors, decision-makers can avoid overlooking critical aspects that could impact the success of the chosen option.

Secondly, decision criteria enable individuals or organizations to compare and prioritize different options based on their importance. By assigning weights or rankings to each criterion, decision-makers can objectively assess the pros and cons of each alternative. This allows for a more structured decision-making process and reduces the likelihood of relying on subjective judgments solely.

Lastly, decision criteria facilitate stakeholder collaboration and transparency as they provide a clear framework for evaluating options and aligning diverse perspectives. When decision criteria are well-defined and communicated, stakeholders can understand the rationale behind the chosen option and feel more engaged in the decision-making process.

1.3 Disadvantages of Decision Criteria

While decision criteria offer significant advantages, they are not without their limitations. One potential disadvantage is that decision criteria can oversimplify complex problems or situations. By focusing on specific factors, decision criteria may overlook critical nuances or underlying complexities that could impact the final decision. It is important for decision-makers to be aware of this limitation and consider additional information or expert opinions to supplement the criteria.

Additionally, decision criteria can be influenced by biases or limited perspectives, potentially leading to suboptimal outcomes. For example, if decision criteria heavily prioritize short-term financial gains, long-term sustainability or ethical considerations may be overlooked. To mitigate this risk, decision-makers should strive for a diverse and inclusive decision-making process that incorporates a wide range of perspectives and expertise.

In conclusion, decision criteria play a vital role in the decision-making process. They provide a structured framework for evaluating alternatives and help ensure that all relevant aspects are considered. However, decision criteria should be used judiciously, taking into account the limitations and potential biases they may introduce. By combining decision criteria with broader considerations and expert insights, individuals and organizations can make more informed and effective decisions.

2. Examples of Decision Criteria

Examining practical examples will further illuminate the concept of decision criteria. Let's explore how decision criteria can be applied in different contexts:

2.1 Example in a Startup Context

In a startup context, decision criteria could include factors such as market potential, cost-effectiveness, scalability, and alignment with the company's vision and mission. By prioritizing these criteria, startup founders can evaluate potential business opportunities and make data-driven decisions that maximize chances of success.

For example, let's consider a tech startup that is developing a new mobile app. The decision criteria for this startup could involve analyzing the size of the target market, assessing the potential demand for the app, and evaluating the competition in the app market. Additionally, the startup may consider the cost-effectiveness of developing and maintaining the app, as well as its scalability potential in terms of user growth and revenue generation.

By carefully considering these decision criteria, the startup can make informed choices about whether to proceed with the app development, how to allocate resources, and how to position the app in the market.

2.2 Example in a Consulting Context

When working on a consulting project, decision criteria might involve client requirements, industry best practices, profitability, and long-term sustainability. By utilizing these criteria, consultants can assess alternative solutions and recommend the most suitable strategy to address the client's challenges and achieve their goals.

For instance, let's imagine a consulting firm that is tasked with helping a manufacturing company optimize its production processes. The decision criteria in this context could include analyzing the client's specific requirements, benchmarking against industry best practices, evaluating the potential profitability of proposed solutions, and considering the long-term sustainability of the implemented changes.

By carefully evaluating these decision criteria, the consulting firm can provide the client with a well-informed recommendation on how to streamline their production processes, improve efficiency, and ultimately achieve their desired business outcomes.

2.3 Example in a Digital Marketing Agency Context

In the context of a digital marketing agency, decision criteria could include factors such as target audience reach, cost per acquisition, return on investment, and campaign performance metrics. By incorporating these criteria, digital marketers can make data-informed decisions on the optimal marketing channels, strategies, and campaigns to maximize client's online presence and achieve desired business outcomes.

For example, let's consider a digital marketing agency that is working with an e-commerce client to increase their online sales. The decision criteria for this agency could involve analyzing the potential reach of different marketing channels, calculating the cost per acquisition for each channel, evaluating the expected return on investment for various marketing strategies, and monitoring campaign performance metrics such as click-through rates and conversion rates.

By carefully considering these decision criteria, the digital marketing agency can develop a tailored marketing plan that focuses on the most effective channels, strategies, and campaigns to drive targeted traffic to the client's website, increase conversions, and ultimately boost online sales.

2.4 Example with Analogies

To grasp the concept of decision criteria further, let's consider an analogy. Imagine you are choosing a holiday destination. The decision criteria might encompass factors such as travel costs, weather preferences, available activities, and cultural experiences. By evaluating these criteria, you can prioritize destinations that align with your preferences and make an informed decision on the best holiday spot.

For instance, let's say you are planning a vacation and have several potential destinations in mind. The decision criteria you might consider could include analyzing the cost of travel and accommodation, assessing the weather conditions and climate preferences, evaluating the availability of activities and attractions, and considering the cultural experiences each destination offers.

By carefully evaluating these decision criteria, you can narrow down your options and choose a holiday destination that suits your budget, weather preferences, desired activities, and cultural interests.

In conclusion, decision criteria play a crucial role in the decision-making process. They allow individuals or organizations to assess alternatives systematically, considering crucial factors and aligning decisions with their goals. While decision criteria have advantages such as comprehensiveness and clarity, it is important to be aware of their limitations and use them judiciously alongside broader considerations. By examining practical examples and analogies, we can better understand how decision criteria apply in various contexts and enhance our decision-making capabilities.

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Decision Criteria

Published on :

21 Aug, 2024

Blog Author :

Edited by :

Reviewed by :

Dheeraj Vaidya

What Is The Decision Criteria?

Decision Criteria in decision making refer to the set of factors or principles individuals or businesses consider while making an important decision. The prime purpose of this criterion is to consider a wide range of values and elements before finalizing a decision. 

Decision criteria is a crucial concept of corporate governance used in the decision-making process. It acts as a pillar for the future of the business. So, if a firm incorporates a decision criteria matrix, it can increase the sales of its goods and services. However, this criterion may be deliberately or unintentionally included.

Table of contents

Decision criteria explained.

• Frequently Asked Questions(FAQs)

Recommended Articles

• Decision criteria are a set of principles, standards, variables, or factors that influence the decisions made by individuals. It forms a base for major decisions in corporate governance. 
• The first origin of such criteria dates back to the 18th century. Later, statistician Frank Ramsey also contributed to this theory. 
• The process involves establishing objectives, preparing a roadmap, defining the criteria, developing a decision matrix, and analyzing decisions. 
• The three types of decision criteria include economic, technical, and personal criteria. 

Decision criteria provides space for the involvement of various factors before making a decision. Also, it helps the managers and senior executives to make an ethical and logical decision. The decision criteria matrix is a vital component of the decision matrix. However, its origin dates back to the 18th century in the works of polymath Benjamin Franklin. Later, mathematician Frank Ramsey presented a set of rules for deciding an outcome. Thus, it paved the way for rational and logical decisions. However, poor decisions can also impact the overall business. 

The process of decision criteria in decision-making has various steps within it. For many firms, the procedure starts with the establishment of goals itself. A proper definition of objectives helps them to decide the criterion elements further. It serves as a base for future decisions. For instance, managers can list the strategic plans regarding future sales. Once defined, the next step is to create a roadmap for the same. Its main purpose is to list the daily tasks and priorities that must be focused on. It ensures that the resources and time are optimally utilized. However, the major concern lies in the factor selection.

As the resources are prioritized, the firm can collect the required information to identify decision criteria. Here, these criteria can be quantitative as well as qualitative. While some individuals make a decision based on their emotional experience, others may look at numbers. They can create a decision matrix with the respective variables and rank them likewise. Typically, a higher rank depicts its relevance to the decision matrix. For instance, the more relevant factors receive more priority compared to others. However, in the later stages, the user can change the criterion as per the situation. 

Let us look at the three types of criteria that are prevalent in the decision criteria analysis:

#1 - Economic Criteria 

As the name suggests, economic criteria consider factors from an economic perspective. It means that managers may make a decision based on some economic factors . These factors have a major role in benefitting the organization. They include cost, expenses , opportunity cost , return on investment , capital, and resources. For instance, if the firm wants to change its current supplier, it may deploy the economic criteria to make the final decision. 

#2 - Technical Criteria

The technical criteria refer to the technical information regarding the product, which generally includes the characteristics and features of the product. This multi-criteria analysis only applies when the decision primarily depends on the technical criteria. For example, if the business wants to improve the product, it may consider convenience, comfort, reliability, risk, and efficiency.

#3 - Personal Criteria

Lastly, personal criteria are a type of qualitative decision-making. It considers personal experiences and touch. It also involves the personal preferences of an individual. Besides, firms may also include stress, effort, and style of a decision maker. 

In addition, social and environmental factors can help in identifying decision criteria. For instance, the manager may consider an optimal solution for decision-making that balances the climatic effect on the environment. 

Let us look at some examples of decision criteria to comprehend the concept better:

Suppose Jessy is a sales manager in the Lopes Ltd firm, which operates in the retail segment and is mainly focused on the dairy sector. In the past few years, the business has seen a huge rise in its annual sales. However, they were still worried about the waste excreted from the dairy output. As a result, Jessy and management executives decided to discuss this matter. During this analysis, they utilized the decision criteria matrix. 

The team considered the major factors like environmental and climatic variables before making the final decision. After extensive research and observation, Jessy suggested a new upcycled product from whey. They decided to launch whey powder that would bring all benefits during athletic performances. As soon as this decision was made, Lopes Ltd saw a huge surge in their periodic sales. The customers found it more feasible and affordable compared to others. As a result, the average revenues rose by 15%.

According to the recent news article, as of  November 2023 , the Institute for Clinical and Economic Review released the third annual score on prescription drugs. They analyzed 18 drugs, from cardiovascular medicines and cancer treatments to orphan therapeutics. It also focused on how the American insurers and pharmacy benefit managers fairly covered the drugs. There was a high degree of alignment via fair access criteria in this process. 

However, this report does miss out on some important aspects, like transparency of the insurer’s decision-making process. If it was included, the consumers would have made better yet informed choices on their drug purchases.

Decision criteria have a vital place in every decision made within the business. However, it does hold some importance in the business. Let us look at them:

• Leads to higher efficiency 

Such criteria are beneficial for businesses that aim for high efficiency. Managers can make effective decisions with this standard. It also improves the speed and quality of the decision-making process. Thus, decisions made after evaluating these factors do result in desired results. 

• Improves the revenue figures

This decision matrix can also help firms increase their sales figures. It forms the basis for the decisions that influence essential business deals . Likewise, if a business makes a poor decision, it can impact the overall revenue ratios. 

• Aligns the product with the customer’s choices

It also helps align the product characteristics with market preferences. In short, it gives a pre-market idea of the customer's taste and choices. For instance, a firm may conduct a market survey before launching a new product. 

• Creates a balance of goals

As businesses follow a decision criterion, they can also follow their objectives. The stakeholders and other team members also support the decision along with follow-up. Plus, it adds a level of fairness to the decision made.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

In a case study, the decision criteria involve variables before making any major decision or concluding the experiment. However, certain elements are involved in this process. For instance, the researcher may use various qualitative and quantitative parameters as criteria. 

Following are the tips to improve the decision criteria of a business. Let us look at them:  • Involvement of criteria that are realistic in their true sense.   • Proper consideration of laws and policies before making a decision.   • Ensuring that the criteria are measurable and brief.   • Considering the ideas and opinions of other team members. 

In the Request For Proposal (RFP), various selection criteria are included while making a decision. However, they work on some weights. It includes vendor's experience, customer service, reputation, pricing, delivery timeline, and others. 

This has been a guide to what is the Decision Criteria. Here, we explain the concept along with its examples, types, and importance. You may learn more about financing from the following articles –

• Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis
• Decision-Making Framework
• Project Selection Criteria

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HOW TO ANALYZE DECISION SCENARIO CASES

T he most common type of core scenario you’ll encounter in cases is a decision. The first part of this chapter will define the unique characteristics of a decision analysis and the second will walk you through an analysis of a complete case, using the elements and the questions described in chapter 3 .

The analysis of a decision scenario has six distinct elements:

• Identification of the required decision
• Review or identification of options
• Criteria selection
• Criteria-based analysis
• Recommended decision
• Proposed actions

Your professors probably will not discuss a decision scenario case by asking questions about the six elements. They will have their own way of facilitating the discussion. Nevertheless, ...

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Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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What Is a Case Study? How to Write, Examples, and Template

In this post

How to write a case study

Case study template, case study examples, types of case studies, what are the benefits of case studies , what are the limitations of case studies , case study vs. testimonial.

In today's marketplace, conveying your product's value through a compelling narrative is crucial to genuinely connecting with your customers.

Your business can use marketing analytics tools to understand what customers want to know about your product. Once you have this information, the next step is to showcase your product and its benefits to your target audience. This strategy involves a mix of data, analysis, and storytelling. Combining these elements allows you to create a narrative that engages your audience. So, how can you do this effectively?

What is a case study? 

A case study is a powerful tool for showcasing a business's success in helping clients achieve their goals. It's a form of storytelling that details real-world scenarios where a business implemented its solutions to deliver positive results for a client.

In this article, we explore the concept of a case study , including its writing process, benefits, various types, challenges, and more.

Understanding how to write a case study is an invaluable skill. You'll need to embrace decision-making – from deciding which customers to feature to designing the best format to make them as engaging as possible.  This can feel overwhelming in a hurry, so let's break it down.

Step 1: Reach out to the target persona

If you've been in business for a while, you have no shortage of happy customers. But w ith limited time and resources, you can't choose everyone.  So, take some time beforehand to flesh out your target buyer personas. 

Once you know precisely who you're targeting, go through your stable of happy customers to find a buyer representative of the audience you're trying to reach. The closer their problems, goals, and industries align, the more your case study will resonate.

What if you have more than one buyer persona? No problem. This is a common situation for companies because buyers comprise an entire committee. You might be marketing to procurement experts, executives, engineers, etc. Try to develop a case study tailored to each key persona. This might be a long-term goal, and that's fine. The better you can personalize the experience for each stakeholder, the easier it is to keep their attention.  

Here are a few considerations to think about before research:

• Products/services of yours the customer uses (and how familiar they are with them)
• The customer's brand recognition in the industry
• Whether the results they've achieved are specific and remarkable
• Whether they've switched from a competitor's product/service
• How closely aligned they are with your target audience

These items are just a jumping-off point as you develop your criteria.  Once you have a list, run each customer through it to determine your top targets. Approach the ones on the top (your "dream" case study subjects) and work your way down as needed.

Who to interview

You should consider interviewing top-level managers or executives because those are high-profile positions. But consider how close they are to your product and its results.

Focusing on an office manager or engineer who uses your product daily would be better. Look for someone with a courtside view of the effects.

The ways to request customer participation in case studies can vary, but certain principles can improve your chances:

• Make it easy for customers to work with you, respecting their valuable time. Be well-prepared and minimize their involvement.
• Emphasize how customers will benefit through increased publicity, revenue opportunities, or recognition for their success. 
• Acknowledge their contributions and showcase their achievements.
• Standardizing the request process with a script incorporating these principles can help your team consistently secure case study approvals and track performance.

Step 2: Prepare for the interview

Case study interviews are like school exams. The more prepared you are for them, the better they turn out. Preparing thoroughly also shows participants that you value their time. You don't waste precious minutes rehashing things you should have already known. You focus on getting the information you need as efficiently as possible.

You can conduct your case study interview in multiple formats, from exchanging emails to in-person interviews. This isn't a trivial decision.  As you'll see in the chart below, each format has its unique advantages and disadvantages. 

You'll also have to consider who will ask and answer the questions during your case study interview. It's wise to consider this while considering the case study format.  The number of participants factors into which format will work best. Pulling off an in-person interview becomes much harder if you're trying to juggle four or five people's busy schedules. Try a video conference instead.

Before interviewing your case study participant, it is crucial to identify the specific questions that need to be asked.  It's essential to thoroughly evaluate your collaboration with the client and understand how your product's contributions impact the company. 

Remember that structuring your case study is akin to crafting a compelling narrative. To achieve this, follow a structured approach:

• Beginning of your story. Delve into the customer's challenge that ultimately led them to do business with you. What were their problems like? What drove them to make a decision finally? Why did they choose you?
• The middle of the case study.  Your audience also wants to know about the experience of working with you. Your customer has taken action to address their problems. What happened once you got on board?
• An ending that makes you the hero.  Describe the specific results your company produced for the customer. How has the customer's business (and life) changed once they implemented your solution?

Sample questions for the case study interview

If you're preparing for a case study interview, here are some sample case study research questions to help you get started:

• What challenges led you to seek a solution?
• When did you realize the need for immediate action? Was there a tipping point?
• How did you decide on the criteria for choosing a B2B solution, and who was involved?
• What set our product or service apart from others you considered?
• How was your experience working with us post-purchase?
• Were there any pleasant surprises or exceeded expectations during our collaboration?
• How smoothly did your team integrate our solution into their workflows?
• How long before you started seeing positive results?
• How have you benefited from our products or services?
• How do you measure the value our product or service provides?

Step 3: Conduct the interview

Preparing for case study interviews can be different from everyday conversations. Here are some tips to keep in mind:

• Create a comfortable atmosphere.  Before diving into the discussion, talk about their business and personal interests. Ensure everyone is at ease, and address any questions or concerns.
• Prioritize key questions.  Lead with your most crucial questions to respect your customer's time. Interview lengths can vary, so starting with the essentials ensures you get the vital information.
• Be flexible.  Case study interviews don't have to be rigid. If your interviewee goes "off script," embrace it. Their spontaneous responses often provide valuable insights.
• Record the interview.  If not conducted via email, ask for permission to record the interview. This lets you focus on the conversation and capture valuable quotes without distractions.

Step 4: Figure out who will create the case study

When creating written case studies for your business, deciding who should handle the writing depends on cost, perspective, and revisions.

Outsourcing might be pricier, but it ensures a professionally crafted outcome. On the other hand, in-house writing has its considerations, including understanding your customers and products. 

Technical expertise and equipment are needed for video case studies, which often leads companies to consider outsourcing due to production and editing costs. 

Tip: When outsourcing work, it's essential to clearly understand pricing details to avoid surprises and unexpected charges during payment.

Step 5: Utilize storytelling

Understanding and applying storytelling elements can make your case studies unforgettable, offering a competitive edge. 

Source: The Framework Bank

Every great study follows a narrative arc (also called a "story arc"). This arc represents how a character faces challenges, struggles against raising stakes, and encounters a formidable obstacle before the tension resolves.

In a case study narrative, consider:

• Exposition. Provide background information about the company, revealing their "old life" before becoming your customer.
• Inciting incident. Highlight the problem that drove the customer to seek a solution, creating a sense of urgency.
• Obstacles (rising action). Describe the customer's journey in researching and evaluating solutions, building tension as they explore options.
• Midpoint. Explain what made the business choose your product or service and what set you apart.
• Climax. Showcase the success achieved with your product.
• Denouement. Describe the customer's transformed business and end with a call-to-action for the reader to take the next step.

Step 6: Design the case study

The adage "Don't judge a book by its cover" is familiar, but people tend to do just that quite often!

A poor layout can deter readers even if you have an outstanding case study. To create an engaging case study, follow these steps:

• Craft a compelling title. Just like you wouldn't read a newspaper article without an eye-catching headline, the same goes for case studies. Start with a title that grabs attention.
• Organize your content. Break down your content into different sections, such as challenges, results, etc. Each section can also include subsections. This case study approach divides the content into manageable portions, preventing readers from feeling overwhelmed by lengthy blocks of text.
• Conciseness is key. Keep your case study as concise as possible. The most compelling case studies are precisely long enough to introduce the customer's challenge, experience with your solution, and outstanding results. Prioritize clarity and omit any sections that may detract from the main storyline.
• Utilize visual elements. To break up text and maintain reader interest, incorporate visual elements like callout boxes, bulleted lists, and sidebars.
• Include charts and images. Summarize results and simplify complex topics by including pictures and charts. Visual aids enhance the overall appeal of your case study.
• Embrace white space. Avoid overwhelming walls of text to prevent reader fatigue. Opt for plenty of white space, use shorter paragraphs, and employ subsections to ensure easy readability and navigation.
• Enhance video case studies. In video case studies, elements like music, fonts, and color grading are pivotal in setting the right tone. Choose music that complements your message and use it strategically throughout your story. Carefully select fonts to convey the desired style, and consider how lighting and color grading can influence the mood. These elements collectively help create the desired tone for your video case study.

Step 7: Edits and revisions

Once you've finished the interview and created your case study, the hardest part is over. Now's the time for editing and revision. This might feel frustrating for impatient B2B marketers, but it can turn good stories into great ones.

Ideally, you'll want to submit your case study through two different rounds of editing and revisions:

• Internal review. Seek feedback from various team members to ensure your case study is captivating and error-free. Gather perspectives from marketing, sales, and those in close contact with customers for well-rounded insights. Use patterns from this feedback to guide revisions and apply lessons to future case studies.
• Customer feedback. Share the case study with customers to make them feel valued and ensure accuracy. Let them review quotes and data points, as they are the "heroes" of the story, and their logos will be prominently featured. This step maintains positive customer relationships.

Case study mistakes to avoid

• Ensure easy access to case studies on your website.
• Spotlight the customer, not just your business.
• Tailor each case study to a specific audience.
• Avoid excessive industry jargon in your content.

Step 8: Publishing

Take a moment to proofread your case study one more time carefully. Even if you're reasonably confident you've caught all the errors, it's always a good idea to check. Your case study will be a valuable marketing tool for years, so it's worth the investment to ensure it's flawless. Once done, your case study is all set to go!

Consider sharing a copy of the completed case study with your customer as a thoughtful gesture. They'll likely appreciate it; some may want to keep it for their records. After all, your case study wouldn't have been possible without their help, and they deserve to see the final product.

Where you publish your case study depends on its role in your overall marketing strategy. If you want to reach as many people as possible with your case study, consider publishing it on your website and social media platforms. 

Tip: Some companies prefer to keep their case studies exclusive, making them available only to those who request them. This approach is often taken to control access to valuable information and to engage more deeply with potential customers who express specific interests. It can create a sense of exclusivity and encourage interested parties to engage directly with the company.

Step 9: Case study distribution

When sharing individual case studies, concentrate on reaching the audience with the most influence on purchasing decisions

Here are some common distribution channels to consider:

• Sales teams. Share case studies to enhance customer interactions, retention , and upselling among your sales and customer success teams. Keep them updated on new studies and offer easily accessible formats like PDFs or landing page links.
• Company website. Feature case studies on your website to establish authority and provide valuable information to potential buyers. Organize them by categories such as location, size, industry, challenges, and products or services used for effective presentation.
• Events. Use live events like conferences and webinars to distribute printed case study copies, showcase video case studies at trade show booths, and conclude webinars with links to your case study library. This creative approach blends personal interactions with compelling content.
• Industry journalists. Engage relevant industry journalists to gain media coverage by identifying suitable publications and journalists covering related topics. Building relationships is vital, and platforms like HARO (Help A Reporter Out) can facilitate connections, especially if your competitors have received coverage before.

Want to learn more about Marketing Analytics Software? Explore Marketing Analytics products.

It can seem daunting to transform the information you've gathered into a cohesive narrative.  We’ve created a versatile case study template that can serve as a solid starting point for your case study.

With this template, your business can explore any solutions offered to satisfied customers, covering their background, the factors that led them to choose your services, and their outcomes.

The template boasts a straightforward design, featuring distinct sections that guide you in effectively narrating your and your customer's story. However, remember that limitless ways to showcase your business's accomplishments exist.

To assist you in this process, here's a breakdown of the recommended sections to include in a case study:

• Title.  Keep it concise. Create a brief yet engaging project title summarizing your work with your subject. Consider your title like a newspaper headline; do it well, and readers will want to learn more. 
• Subtitle . Use this section to elaborate on the achievement briefly. Make it creative and catchy to engage your audience.
• Executive summary.  Use this as an overview of the story, followed by 2-3 bullet points highlighting key success metrics.
• Challenges and objectives. This section describes the customer's challenges before adopting your product or service, along with the goals or objectives they sought to achieve.
• How product/service helped.  A paragraph explaining how your product or service addressed their problem.
• Testimonials.  Incorporate short quotes or statements from the individuals involved in the case study, sharing their perspectives and experiences.
• Supporting visuals.  Include one or two impactful visuals, such as graphs, infographics, or highlighted metrics, that reinforce the narrative.
• Call to action (CTA).  If you do your job well, your audience will read (or watch) your case studies from beginning to end. They are interested in everything you've said. Now, what's the next step they should take to continue their relationship with you? Give people a simple action they can complete. 

Case studies are proven marketing strategies in a wide variety of B2B industries. Here are just a few examples of a case study:

• Amazon Web Services, Inc.  provides companies with cloud computing platforms and APIs on a metered, pay-as-you-go basis. This case study example illustrates the benefits Thomson Reuters experienced using AWS.
• LinkedIn Marketing Solutions combines captivating visuals with measurable results in the case study created for BlackRock. This case study illustrates how LinkedIn has contributed to the growth of BlackRock's brand awareness over the years. 
• Salesforce , a sales and marketing automation SaaS solutions provider, seamlessly integrates written and visual elements to convey its success stories with Pepe Jeans. This case study effectively demonstrates how Pepe Jeans is captivating online shoppers with immersive and context-driven e-commerce experiences through Salesforce.
• HubSpot offers a combination of sales and marketing tools. Their case study demonstrates the effectiveness of its all-in-one solutions. These typically focus on a particular client's journey and how HubSpot helped them achieve significant results.

There are two different types of case studies that businesses might utilize:

Written case studies 

Written case studies offer readers a clear visual representation of data, which helps them quickly identify and focus on the information that matters most. 

Printed versions of case studies find their place at events like trade shows, where they serve as valuable sales collateral to engage prospective clients.  Even in the digital age, many businesses provide case studies in PDF format or as web-based landing pages, improving accessibility for their audience. 

Note: Landing pages , in particular, offer the flexibility to incorporate rich multimedia content, including images, charts, and videos. This flexibility in design makes landing pages an attractive choice for presenting detailed content to the audience.

Written case study advantages

Here are several significant advantages to leveraging case studies for your company:

• Hyperlink accessibility.  Whether in PDF or landing page format, written case studies allow for embedded hyperlinks, offering prospects easy access to additional information and contact forms.
• Flexible engagement.  Unlike video case studies, which may demand in-person arrangements, written case studies can be conducted via phone or video streaming, reducing customer commitment and simplifying scheduling.
• Efficient scanning . Well-structured written case studies with a scannable format cater to time-strapped professionals. Charts and callout boxes with key statistics enhance the ease of information retrieval.
• Printable for offline use.  Written case studies can be effortlessly printed and distributed at trade shows, sales meetings, and live events. This tangible format accommodates those who prefer physical materials and provides versatility in outreach, unlike video content, which is less portable.

Written case study disadvantages

Here are some drawbacks associated with the use of case studies:

• Reduced emotional impact.  Written content lacks the emotional punch of live video testimonials, which engage more senses and emotions, making a stronger connection.
• Consider time investment.  Creating a compelling case study involves editing, proofreading, and design collaboration, with multiple revisions commonly required before publication.
• Challenges in maintaining attention.  Attention spans are short in today's ad-saturated world. Using graphics, infographics, and videos more often is more powerful to incite the right emotions in customers.

Video case studies

Video case studies are the latest marketing trend. Unlike in the past, when video production was costly, today's tools make it more accessible for users to create and edit their videos. However, specific technical requirements still apply.

Like written case studies, video case studies delve into a specific customer's challenges and how your business provides solutions. Yet, the video offers a more profound connection by showcasing the person who faced and conquered the problem.

Video case studies can boost brand exposure when shared on platforms like YouTube. For example, Slack's engaging case study video with Sandwich Video illustrates how Slack transformed its workflow and adds humor, which can be challenging in written case studies focused on factual evidence.

Source : YouTube

This video case study has garnered nearly a million views on YouTube.

Video case study advantages

Here are some of the top advantages of video case studies. While video testimonials take more time, the payoff can be worth it. 

• Humanization and authenticity.  Video case studies connect viewers with real people, adding authenticity and fostering a stronger emotional connection.
• Engaging multiple senses.  They engage both auditory and visual senses, enhancing credibility and emotional impact. Charts, statistics, and images can also be incorporated.
• Broad distribution.  Videos can be shared on websites, YouTube, social media, and more, reaching diverse audiences and boosting engagement, especially on social platforms.

Video case study disadvantages

Before fully committing to video testimonials, consider the following:

• Technical expertise and equipment.  Video production requires technical know-how and equipment, which can be costly. Skilled video editing is essential to maintain a professional image. While technology advances, producing amateurish videos may harm your brand's perception.
• Viewer convenience.  Some prospects prefer written formats due to faster reading and ease of navigation. Video typically requires sound, which can be inconvenient for viewers in specific settings. Many people may not have headphones readily available to watch your content.
• Demand on case study participants.  On-camera interviews can be time-consuming and location-dependent, making scheduling challenging for case study participants. Additionally, being on screen for a global audience may create insecurities and performance pressure.
• Comfort on camera.  Not everyone feels at ease on camera. Nervousness or a different on-screen persona can impact the effectiveness of the testimonial, and discovering this late in the process can be problematic.

Written or video case studies: Which is right for you?

Now that you know the pros and cons of each, how do you choose which is right for you?

One of the most significant factors in doing video case studies can be the technical expertise and equipment required for a high level of production quality. Whether you have the budget to do this in-house or hire a production company can be one of the major deciding factors.

Still, written or video doesn't have to be an either-or decision. Some B2B companies are using both formats. They can complement each other nicely, minimizing the downsides mentioned above and reaching your potential customers where they prefer.

Let's say you're selling IT network security. What you offer is invaluable but complicated. You could create a short (three- or four-minute) video case study to get attention and touch on the significant benefits of your services. This whets the viewer's appetite for more information, which they could find in a written case study that supplements the video.

Should you decide to test the water in video case studies, test their effectiveness among your target audience. See how well they work for your company and sales team. And, just like a written case study, you can always find ways to improve your process as you continue exploring video case studies.

Case studies offer several distinctive advantages, making them an ideal tool for businesses to market their products to customers. However, their benefits extend beyond these qualities. 

Here's an overview of all the advantages of case studies:

Valuable sales support

Case studies serve as a valuable resource for your sales endeavors. Buyers frequently require additional information before finalizing a purchase decision. These studies provide concrete evidence of your product or service's effectiveness, assisting your sales representatives in closing deals more efficiently, especially with customers with lingering uncertainties.

Validating your value

Case studies serve as evidence of your product or service's worth or value proposition , playing a role in building trust with potential customers. By showcasing successful partnerships, you make it easier for prospects to place trust in your offerings. This effect is particularly notable when the featured customer holds a reputable status.

Unique and engaging content

By working closely with your customer success teams, you can uncover various customer stories that resonate with different prospects. Case studies allow marketers to shape product features and benefits into compelling narratives. 

Each case study's distinctiveness, mirroring the uniqueness of every customer's journey, makes them a valuable source of relatable and engaging content. Storytelling possesses the unique ability to connect with audiences on an emotional level, a dimension that statistics alone often cannot achieve. 

Spotlighting valuable customers

Case studies provide a valuable platform for showcasing your esteemed customers. Featuring them in these studies offers a chance to give them visibility and express your gratitude for the partnership, which can enhance customer loyalty . Depending on the company you are writing about, it can also demonstrate the caliber of your business.

Now is the time to get SaaS-y news and entertainment with our 5-minute newsletter,   G2 Tea , featuring inspiring leaders, hot takes, and bold predictions. Subscribe below!

It's important to consider limitations when designing and interpreting the results of case studies. Here's an overview of the limitations of case studies:

Challenges in replication

Case studies often focus on specific individuals, organizations, or situations, making generalizing their findings to broader populations or contexts challenging. 

Time-intensive process

Case studies require a significant time investment. The extensive data collection process and the need for comprehensive analysis can be demanding, especially for researchers who are new to this method.

Potential for errors

Case studies can be influenced by memory and judgment, potentially leading to inaccuracies. Depending on human memory to reconstruct a case's history may result in variations and potential inconsistencies in how individuals recall past events. Additionally, bias may emerge, as individuals tend to prioritize what they consider most significant, which could limit their consideration of alternative perspectives.

Challenges in verification

Confirming results through additional research can present difficulties. This complexity arises from the need for detailed and extensive data in the initial creation of a case study. Consequently, this process requires significant effort and a substantial amount of time.

While looking at case studies, you may have noticed a quote. This type of quote is considered a testimonial, a key element of case studies.

If a customer's quote proves that your brand does what it says it will or performs as expected, you may wonder: 'Aren't customer testimonials and case studies the same thing?' Not exactly.

Testimonials are brief endorsements designed to establish trust on a broad scale. In contrast, case studies are detailed narratives that offer a comprehensive understanding of how a product or service addresses a specific problem, targeting a more focused audience. 

Crafting case studies requires more resources and a structured approach than testimonials. Your selection between the two depends on your marketing objectives and the complexity of your product or service.

Case in point!

Case studies are among a company's most effective tools. You're  well on your way to mastering them.

Today's buyers are tackling much of the case study research methodology independently. Many are understandably skeptical before making a buying decision. By connecting them with multiple case studies, you can prove you've gotten the results you say you can. There's hardly a better way to boost your credibility and persuade them to consider your solution.

Case study formats and distribution methods might change as technology evolves. However, the fundamentals that make them effective—knowing how to choose subjects, conduct interviews, and structure everything to get attention—will serve you for as long as you're in business. 

We covered a ton of concepts and resources, so go ahead and bookmark this page. You can refer to it whenever you have questions or need a refresher.

Dive into market research to uncover customer preferences and spending habits.

Kristen McCabe

Kristen’s is a former senior content marketing specialist at G2. Her global marketing experience extends from Australia to Chicago, with expertise in B2B and B2C industries. Specializing in content, conversions, and events, Kristen spends her time outside of work time acting, learning nature photography, and joining in the #instadog fun with her Pug/Jack Russell, Bella. (she/her/hers)

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20 – Recommendation Reports

Decision-Making and Criteria

David McMurrey; Jonathan Arnett; Kalani Pattison; and Nicole Hagstrom-Schmidt

The previous parts of this chapter have dealt mostly with expectations regarding the sections of a recommendation or feasibility report. However, underlying the report as a whole, a decision-making process is taking place. Presenting a clear recommendation or suggestions to your audience depends on clearly informing your readers how you reached your decision.

Depending on the structure of your report and the delineation of your research tasks within your results, conclusions, recommendations, or all of these sections, you will have to justify evaluations, comparisons, and decisions that you made in the course of your research. Below are several common places where you may make crucial decisions that affect the content and results of your entire report:

• If one of your research tasks is to determine the best product to buy, and another task is to determine where to install it, you will have to evaluate multiple options as part of the results of those tasks.
• If you administer a survey, conduct interviews, and find secondary resources about website builders, you may have to determine the most important information to include in your conclusion in order to draw your results or findings together into logical conclusions.
• If you find that a suggested course of action isn’t actually going to improve a situation, a decision-making tree or a decision matrix in the recommendation might help support your recommendation of keeping the status quo.

In all of these cases, and in almost all recommendation or feasibility reports, you need to be able to clearly explain your decision-making processes to your audience in an objective way. Three tools that you can use to do so are criteria, decision matrices, and decision trees.

Criteria (singular: criterion) are the quantitative and qualitative categories and standards you use to judge something. If your technical report requires you to make a judgment of some sort—is the project feasible? What is the best option? Did the item pass or fail a test?—you should describe and define the factors that guide your decision. Common examples of decision-making criteria include costs, schedules, popular opinions, demonstrated needs, and degrees of quality. Here are some examples:

• If you are recommending a tablet computer for use by employees, your requirements are likely to involve size, cost, hard-disk storage, display quality, durability, and battery life.
• If you are looking into the feasibility of providing every student at Austin Community College with an ID on the ACC computer network, you need to define the basic requirements of such a program: what it would be expected to accomplish, problems that it would have to avoid, and so on.
• If you are evaluating the logistics of the free bus public transportation program in Bryan/College Station for Texas A&M students, you need to know what is expected of the program and then explore costs, locations, and other factors in relation to those requirements.

Criteria may need to be defined on a very specific level. For example, “chocolate flavor” may be a criterion for choosing among brands of chocolate truffles, but what defines a desirable chocolate flavor? Do you want a milk chocolate flavor? A dark chocolate flavor? White chocolate? A high or low percentage of cacao? Sweet, bitter, or spicy? Single-origin cacao beans or a blend? If single-origin, do you want Ghanian, Venezuelan, Honduran, Ecuadorian, or Filipino? The more you know about a criterion, the more precise you can be in your evaluation.

Criteria may also be referred to as requirements and can be defined in three basic ways:

• Numerical values. Many requirements are stated as maximum or minimum numerical values. For example, there may be a cost requirement, such as the tablet computer for employees should cost no more than $900.
• Yes/no values. Some requirements are simply a yes-no question. For instance, does the tablet come equipped with Bluetooth? Is the car equipped with voice recognition?
• Ratings values. In some cases, key considerations cannot be handled either with numerical values or yes/no values. For example, your organization might want a tablet that has an ease-of-use rating of at least “good” by some nationally accepted ratings group. In other situations, you may have to assign ratings yourself.

The criteria section should also discuss how important the individual requirements are in relation to each other. Picture the typical situation where no one option is best in all categories of comparison. One option is cheaper; another has more functions; one has better ease-of-use ratings; another is known to be more durable. Set up your criteria so that they dictate a “winner” from a situation where there is no obvious winner.

Decision Matrices

One useful tool for decision-making based on criteria of varying importance is a decision matrix (plural: matrices). Decision matrices allow for numerical calculations and comparisons of different choices with criteria that have varying levels of importance.

To create a decision matrix, you start with the options to be compared, the criteria to be used to evaluate the options, and the relative weight or importance of each criterion in the decision. Table 20.2 [1] shows how a generic decision matrix would be set up.

Table 20.2. Generic decision matrix example.

In the weight column, each criterion would be given a number within a certain range—from 1 (least important) to 5 (most important), or 1 to 10, depending on how much the levels differ in importance. Some writers may be more comfortable with using percentages out of 100 when considering weight. Criteria can share the same weight or importance. The options would then be scored along a similar scale according to how well they perform in the particular criterion. The weight and score would then be multiplied and the whole column added together to give a total.

The following Table 20.3 [2] is a decision matrix reflecting different options for communicating to students in an online course. The weights are given in the shaded columns, the score each option earns for each criterion are shown in bold, and the maroon multiplication next to the score shows how the weight and score are multiplied. These totals are then added for a total of the whole column.

Table 20.3. Example decision matrix with randomly generated data.

As you can see in Table 20.3, if you went strictly by the number of criteria that an option excelled in, you might determine that emails are the best way to contact students. However, if you use the more nuanced decision matrix, then you could conclude that Canvas Announcements are the best way to communicate with students. The varying weights of each criterion and the score each option earns should be based on solid research. This matrix, then, allows you to quantify the reasons for choosing one option over another, despite the weights and scores being a little subjective.

Decision Trees

In addition to making a recommendation based on criteria or on weighted criteria, sometimes recommendations can be made after following a decision tree. Creating a visual representation of a decision tree can be useful in illuminating your thought process so that readers can follow your reasoning. Such decision trees can also be useful in communicating procedures for others to follow, especially in problem-solving situations.

The following decision tree in Figure 20.12 [3] illustrates how to determine whether to hire a professional to complete a household project or to do it yourself. As you can see, most decision trees are based on a series of Yes/No, Either/Or limited choices. There may be a choice out of three or four options at a particular step, but that isn’t as common, and so it is not depicted in the example.

This text was derived from

McMurrey, David and Jonathan Arnett, “Recommendation and Feasibility Reports,” in Tiffani Reardon, Tamara Powell, Jonathan Arnett, Monique Logan, and Cassandra Race, with contributors David McMurrey, Steve Miller, Cherie Miller, Megan Gibbs, Jennifer Nguyen, James Monroe, and Lance Linimon. Open Technical Communication . 4th ed. Athens, GA: Affordable Learning Georgia, n.d. https://alg.manifoldapp.org/projects/open-tc . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

• Kalani Pattison, “Generic Decision Matrix Example,” 2020. This image is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . ↵
• Kalani Pattison, “Example Decision Matrix with Randomly Generated Data,” 2020. This image is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . ↵
• Kalani Pattison, “Example of Decision Tree,” 2020. This image is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . ↵

The quantitative and qualitative categories and standards used to evaluate something. (singular: criterion)

Decision-Making and Criteria Copyright © 2022 by David McMurrey; Jonathan Arnett; Kalani Pattison; and Nicole Hagstrom-Schmidt is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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During a recent Facilitating a Requirements Workshop class, my students and I had great discussion regarding decision criteria. While the discussion came out of a class centered on business analysis, the answer resonates with almost any industry. Since my students asked me for a quick write up to reference, I thought it might help others and wanted to share. First, let’s take a quick step back to the question that started our discussion.

How do we decide which alternative is the best when trying to help a group make a decision?

We should always employ decision criteria in making any decision. Let’s explore this by using an example of trying to decide which car to buy. What is important to us that will help us determine which car will best fit our situation? Is it style, comfort, noise, gas mileage, speed, manual/transmission, accessibility, price, payment terms available, reliability…?

You can think of this criteria as part of the user story around the decision being made. For example, this user story might apply to some: “I need the car to look cool so that I can impress women.” One that is much more realistic for me would be “I need the car to be reliable so that I don’t have to worry about breakdowns in traffic.” The criteria are going to help you determine that a successful decision has been made. In this example, success would be that we purchased the right car for our situation.

The decision criteria in a business setting are those variables or characteristics that are important to the organization making the decision. They should help evaluate the alternatives from which you are choosing. I use the word “variables” because you can disregard any characteristics that are constant among the alternatives. For example, if all of the cars I am evaluating get the same gas mileage, then disregard that characteristic as it will not help you choose between the alternatives.

The decision criteria should be measurable and should be within scope of the problem you are trying to solve. On criteria that seem immeasurable, you should at least be able to compare one to another. For example, the typical software characteristic “user friendly” is not measurable as stated. You could either list out what makes the application user friendly for your organization or you can try out the applications and have a rankings for the alternatives on relative “user friendliness” between them.

These are some typical decision criteria:

• Ease of implementation
• Ease of modification/scalability/flexibility
• Employee morale
• Risk levels
• Cost savings
• Increase in sales or market share
• Return on investment
• Similarity to existing organization products
• Increase in customer satisfaction

When in a group decision-making situation, it is often helpful to have the group brainstorm the decision criteria. This helps ensure buy in of the decision itself because the criteria is measurable and not just a “well I feel like we should buy this product because I like it.” You might also weigh the criteria. For example, cost savings might have a higher weight than ease of use.

Following a structured decision making process will not only enable faster decision-making, it also improves the probability that you will get a consensus on the decision. Consensus is determined to exist when the entire group agrees to support the decision, even if they do not totally agree with it. When getting a group to make a decision, an open discussion with logical presentation of the decision criteria will drive the group toward consensus.

Take a look at our Decision Modeling Essentials Course for more on Decision Criteria! Management 3.0 also utilizes two great tools, Delegation Poker and Delegation Boards, to help facilitate decision making. Check out our Guide for Decision Making Using Delegation Poker and Boards for more more about what they are and how to use them.

– Ali

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Deciding How to Decide

• Hugh Courtney,
• Dan Lovallo,
• Carmina Clarke

A tool kit for executives making high-risk strategic bets

Reprint: R1311C

Most businesses rely on traditional capital-budgeting tools when making strategic decisions such as investing in an innovative technology or entering a new market. These tools assume that decision makers have access to remarkably complete and reliable information—yet most strategic decisions must be made under conditions of great uncertainty.

Why are these traditional tools used so often even though their limitations are widely acknowledged? The problem is not a lack of alternatives. Managers have at their disposal a wide variety of tools—including decision analysis, scenario planning, and information aggregation tools—that can help them make smart decisions under high degrees of uncertainty. But the sheer variety can be overwhelming.

This article provides a model for matching the decision-making tool to the decision being made, on the basis of three factors: how well you understand the variables that will determine success, how well you can predict the range of possible outcomes, and how centralized the relevant information is.

The authors bring their framework to life using decisions that executives at McDonald’s might need to make—from the very clear-cut (choosing a site for a new store in the United States) to the highly uncertain (changing the business in response to the obesity epidemic).

Senior managers are paid to make tough decisions. Much rides on the outcome of those decisions, and executives are judged—quite rightly—on their overall success rate. It’s impossible to eliminate risk from strategic decision making, of course. But we believe that it is possible for executives—and companies—to significantly improve their chances of success by making one straightforward (albeit not simple) change: expanding their tool kit of decision support tools and understanding which tools work best for which decisions.

• HC Hugh Courtney is the dean and a professor of international business and strategy at Northeastern University’s D’Amore-McKim School of Business, and a former consultant at McKinsey & Company.
• Dan Lovallo is a professor of business strategy at the University of Sydney Business School and a senior adviser to McKinsey & Company.
• CC Carmina Clarke is a senior manager at Macquarie Group.

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5 Benefits of Learning Through the Case Study Method

• 28 Nov 2023

While several factors make HBS Online unique —including a global Community and real-world outcomes —active learning through the case study method rises to the top.

In a 2023 City Square Associates survey, 74 percent of HBS Online learners who also took a course from another provider said HBS Online’s case method and real-world examples were better by comparison.

Here’s a primer on the case method, five benefits you could gain, and how to experience it for yourself.

Access your free e-book today.

What Is the Harvard Business School Case Study Method?

The case study method , or case method , is a learning technique in which you’re presented with a real-world business challenge and asked how you’d solve it. After working through it yourself and with peers, you’re told how the scenario played out.

HBS pioneered the case method in 1922. Shortly before, in 1921, the first case was written.

“How do you go into an ambiguous situation and get to the bottom of it?” says HBS Professor Jan Rivkin, former senior associate dean and chair of HBS's master of business administration (MBA) program, in a video about the case method . “That skill—the skill of figuring out a course of inquiry to choose a course of action—that skill is as relevant today as it was in 1921.”

Originally developed for the in-person MBA classroom, HBS Online adapted the case method into an engaging, interactive online learning experience in 2014.

In HBS Online courses , you learn about each case from the business professional who experienced it. After reviewing their videos, you’re prompted to take their perspective and explain how you’d handle their situation.

You then get to read peers’ responses, “star” them, and comment to further the discussion. Afterward, you learn how the professional handled it and their key takeaways.

Learn more about HBS Online's approach to the case method in the video below, and subscribe to our YouTube channel for more.

HBS Online’s adaptation of the case method incorporates the famed HBS “cold call,” in which you’re called on at random to make a decision without time to prepare.

“Learning came to life!” said Sheneka Balogun , chief administration officer and chief of staff at LeMoyne-Owen College, of her experience taking the Credential of Readiness (CORe) program . “The videos from the professors, the interactive cold calls where you were randomly selected to participate, and the case studies that enhanced and often captured the essence of objectives and learning goals were all embedded in each module. This made learning fun, engaging, and student-friendly.”

If you’re considering taking a course that leverages the case study method, here are five benefits you could experience.

5 Benefits of Learning Through Case Studies

1. take new perspectives.

The case method prompts you to consider a scenario from another person’s perspective. To work through the situation and come up with a solution, you must consider their circumstances, limitations, risk tolerance, stakeholders, resources, and potential consequences to assess how to respond.

Taking on new perspectives not only can help you navigate your own challenges but also others’. Putting yourself in someone else’s situation to understand their motivations and needs can go a long way when collaborating with stakeholders.

2. Hone Your Decision-Making Skills

Another skill you can build is the ability to make decisions effectively . The case study method forces you to use limited information to decide how to handle a problem—just like in the real world.

Throughout your career, you’ll need to make difficult decisions with incomplete or imperfect information—and sometimes, you won’t feel qualified to do so. Learning through the case method allows you to practice this skill in a low-stakes environment. When facing a real challenge, you’ll be better prepared to think quickly, collaborate with others, and present and defend your solution.

3. Become More Open-Minded

As you collaborate with peers on responses, it becomes clear that not everyone solves problems the same way. Exposing yourself to various approaches and perspectives can help you become a more open-minded professional.

When you’re part of a diverse group of learners from around the world, your experiences, cultures, and backgrounds contribute to a range of opinions on each case.

On the HBS Online course platform, you’re prompted to view and comment on others’ responses, and discussion is encouraged. This practice of considering others’ perspectives can make you more receptive in your career.

“You’d be surprised at how much you can learn from your peers,” said Ratnaditya Jonnalagadda , a software engineer who took CORe.

In addition to interacting with peers in the course platform, Jonnalagadda was part of the HBS Online Community , where he networked with other professionals and continued discussions sparked by course content.

“You get to understand your peers better, and students share examples of businesses implementing a concept from a module you just learned,” Jonnalagadda said. “It’s a very good way to cement the concepts in one's mind.”

4. Enhance Your Curiosity

One byproduct of taking on different perspectives is that it enables you to picture yourself in various roles, industries, and business functions.

“Each case offers an opportunity for students to see what resonates with them, what excites them, what bores them, which role they could imagine inhabiting in their careers,” says former HBS Dean Nitin Nohria in the Harvard Business Review . “Cases stimulate curiosity about the range of opportunities in the world and the many ways that students can make a difference as leaders.”

Through the case method, you can “try on” roles you may not have considered and feel more prepared to change or advance your career .

5. Build Your Self-Confidence

Finally, learning through the case study method can build your confidence. Each time you assume a business leader’s perspective, aim to solve a new challenge, and express and defend your opinions and decisions to peers, you prepare to do the same in your career.

According to a 2022 City Square Associates survey , 84 percent of HBS Online learners report feeling more confident making business decisions after taking a course.

“Self-confidence is difficult to teach or coach, but the case study method seems to instill it in people,” Nohria says in the Harvard Business Review . “There may well be other ways of learning these meta-skills, such as the repeated experience gained through practice or guidance from a gifted coach. However, under the direction of a masterful teacher, the case method can engage students and help them develop powerful meta-skills like no other form of teaching.”

How to Experience the Case Study Method

If the case method seems like a good fit for your learning style, experience it for yourself by taking an HBS Online course. Offerings span eight subject areas, including:

• Business essentials
• Leadership and management
• Entrepreneurship and innovation
• Digital transformation
• Finance and accounting
• Business in society

No matter which course or credential program you choose, you’ll examine case studies from real business professionals, work through their challenges alongside peers, and gain valuable insights to apply to your career.

Are you interested in discovering how HBS Online can help advance your career? Explore our course catalog and download our free guide —complete with interactive workbook sections—to determine if online learning is right for you and which course to take.

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Idaho Supreme Court issues decision on venue change for Bryan Kohberger murder trial

The Idaho Supreme Court issued its decision Thursday on where the murder trial of Bryan Kohberger will be held, and also assigned a new judge to the case.

Kohberger’s trial, and all further proceedings, will be held at the Ada County Courthouse in Boise and presided over by 4th District Judge Steven Hippler, the justices said. The trial is set to take place next year, between June 2 and Aug. 29. It’s unclear whether the new changes will delay that further.

The Supreme Court also ordered that custody of Kohberger — a former Washington State University graduate student accused of killing four University of Idaho students — be transferred to the Ada County Sheriff’s Office. Officials confirmed that Kohberger would be held in the county jail but declined to provide additional details on his transfer and detention.

Latah County will continue to pay for costs accrued throughout the trial, according to Idaho Code 19-1806 referenced by Nate Poppino, Idaho Supreme Court communications manager.

Ada County meets criteria set by judge

Judge John Judge of Idaho’s 2nd Judicial District in Latah County granted Kohberger’s request for a venue change last week, handing the defense a significant win in the legal process.

Judge’s main reasons for moving the trial out of Moscow and Latah County included the county’s small jury pool, too few law enforcement officers and court clerks, and a small courthouse.

Ada County checks all of those boxes. It is the state’s largest county by population ( 557,590 ), and that will offer significantly more potential jurors than Latah County’s population of 39,517. As necessitated by that population, Ada County also employs significantly more clerks and sheriff’s deputies, and has a much bigger courthouse.

The Ada County Courthouse already has proved to be a suitable site for high-profile trials such as those for Chad and Lori Daybell.

“The Trial Court Administrator and the Fourth Judicial District Court, in collaboration with multiple county departments and offices, do an outstanding job coordinating the vast logistical, security and media issues related to high profile cases in Ada County,” the Ada County Board of Commissioners said in an emailed statement to the Idaho Statesman. “We are confident they will do the same on this high-profile case as well.”

Sandra Barrios, the Fourth Judicial District Court trial court administrator in Ada County, said it was too soon to provide details about the trial, but she expressed confidence in the courthouse staff’s abilities.

“We are part of a unified judicial system, and are prepared and ready to do our part to help our sister courts,” Barrios said. “We have been through significant trials in the past (and are) confident that we can do so again.”

Judge did not make a recommendation on where the venue should be moved in his order — which also saw him step down from the case — but he did bring up Ada County multiple times.

“Some 67% of Latah County survey respondents reported believing Kohberger is guilty, with 51% of those indicating it would be hard for Kohberger to convince them of his innocence,” Judge wrote. “While similar percentages answered these questions the same in Ada County, the impact of these numbers when considering population size are drastically different.”

The University of Idaho killings

Kohberger, 29, is charged with four counts of first-degree murder and one count of felony burglary in the November 2022 stabbings of four U of I students at an off-campus home in Moscow. The victims were Ethan Chapin and Xana Kernodle, both 20, and Madison Mogen and Kaylee Goncalves, both 21.

Goncalves’ family previously criticized the change in venue decision, saying they were “incredibly disappointed.”

“The only good thing about this decision is it will be Judge Judge’s last decision in this case,” a statement from the family read. “The family has always felt that Judge Judge favored the defense and it was a common theme that whatever the defense wanted or needed they got.”

Kohberger stood silent when asked to enter a plea at his arraignment. As a result, Judge entered not guilty pleas to each of the charges on Kohberger’s behalf, as mandated by Idaho law.

Prosecutors intend to seek the death penalty if Kohberger is convicted by a jury. His defense has filed a number of challenges to remove capital punishment as a possible sentence, and a court hearing on the issue was scheduled for Nov. 7 in Moscow.

Prosecutors objected to moving the trial , arguing that it was not “necessary or convenient,” which are elements that must be met under Idaho criminal rules . The defense said the level of pretrial publicity in the case — most of it prejudicial against Kohberger — meant he couldn’t get a fair trial in the community where the crimes took place. His attorneys specifically sought a move to Boise.

“The interest of justice requires that the trial be moved to a venue with the resources, both in terms of personnel and space, necessary to effectively and efficiently handle a trial of this magnitude and length,” Judge wrote in his decision granting the venue change.

Per Idaho’s criminal rules, Judge left the decision of the trial location to the Idaho Supreme Court. He also left it up to the five justices to assign a new judge after citing Idaho code that indicated his desire not to continue with the trial.

Idaho Statesman reporter Kevin Fixler contributed.

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Prioritizing sustainable building design indicators through global SLR and comparative analysis of AHP and SWARA for holistic assessment: a case study of Kabul, Afghanistan

• Research Article
• Published: 11 September 2024
• Volume 9 , article number  139 , ( 2024 )

Cite this article

• Ahmad Walid Ayoobi 1 , 2 ,
• Gonca Inceoğlu 3 &
• Mehmet Inceoğlu 4  

The growing emphasis on sustainable architecture, addressing environmental, social, and economic concerns, has spurred the development of numerous design strategies and assessment methods. This has resulted in many sustainable building design indicators, posing challenges in their selection and application, particularly in developing countries with limited resources. This study aims to address these gaps by employing a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) to identify all commonly used sustainable building design indicators globally. Subsequently, a comparative analysis of the SWARA and AHP methods was conducted to characterize weighting scores, prioritize and adapt evaluated indicators, and identify suitable methods for their selection and analysis. Furthermore, the study proposed a comprehensive and holistic set of indicators for sustainable building design, targeting architects and policymakers. Within this set of indicators, the study identified five as the most globally applicable and critical for achieving building sustainability. Weighting scores and prioritization of these indicators for Kabul City, largely aligned with common rating system indicators, were as follows: Energy Efficiency (27.92% weighting), Material & Resources (19.57% weighting), Site & Ecology (13.92% weighting), Indoor Environment Quality (7.69% weighting), and Water Efficiency (13.87% weighting). The overall results indicated that both methods AHP and SWARA are highly effective for analyzing and adapting indicators for sustainable design. These findings offer valuable insights and guidance for the analysis of sustainable indicators, fostering the development of holistic design approaches and a rating system. Ultimately, this research contributes to a more sustainable built environment, particularly within the context of Kabul city.

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Acknowledgements

This work was conducted as part of the doctoral dissertation research of the first author, Ahmad Walid Ayoobi.

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Ahmad Walid Ayoobi

Graduate School of Sciences, Department of Architecture, Eskisehir Technical University, Eskisehir, Turkey

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Contributions

A.W.A. conceived the overall research design. A.W.A. was responsible for defining the scope and methodology of the systematic literature review used to identify and evaluate sustainable building design indicators on a global scale. A.W.A. collaborated on data collection for the study. A.W.A. and G.I. jointly conducted the multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) analysis to determine the relative importance and ranking of sustainable building indicators. A.W.A. and M.I. collaboratively interpreted the data obtained from the literature review and MCDM analysis. A.W.A. drafted the initial manuscript. All authors (A.W.A., M.I., and G.I.) reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Ahmad Walid Ayoobi .

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Ayoobi, A.W., Inceoğlu, G. & Inceoğlu, M. Prioritizing sustainable building design indicators through global SLR and comparative analysis of AHP and SWARA for holistic assessment: a case study of Kabul, Afghanistan. J Build Rehabil 9 , 139 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41024-024-00494-4

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Received : 09 June 2024

Revised : 20 August 2024

Accepted : 03 September 2024

Published : 11 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s41024-024-00494-4

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• Sustainable building design
• Sustainable building indicators
• Systematic literature review (SLR)
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• SWARA (stepwise weight assessment ratio analysis)
• AHP (analytic hierarchy process)
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