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How to Prevent Obesity

• Early Prevention
• Stress Reduction
• Improving Sleep
• Next in Obesity Guide Obesity: What You Need to Know

Preventing obesity involves making healthy lifestyle choices every day. To prevent obesity, you need to stay active, follow a healthy diet, and get adequate sleep. Obesity prevention also involves saying no to certain preferences, like soft drinks, or driving short distances when you could walk instead.

Obesity is generally defined as a chronic disease characterized by excessive body fat. More than 42% of adults and 19% of children and adolescents in the U.S. have obesity, and those numbers are rising. Obesity is often caused by a combination of risk factors, including genetics , poor diet, sedentary behaviors , medical conditions, and lack of access to healthy foods.

While obesity prevention should start in childhood, it is never too late to start making healthier choices. This article discusses how to prevent obesity starting in childhood and later in life. It includes diet, exercise, and lifestyle strategies, along with how these strategies can reduce your obesity risk.

Daniel Llao Calvet / Getty Images

Preventing Obesity in Childhood

Obesity often begins in childhood . Research shows that if a person has obesity at age 5, they are more likely to have obesity as an adult. Conversely, if a child does not have obesity at age 5, their lifetime risk of obesity is significantly lower.

Obesity results from a combination of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. Although families cannot change their genes, they can model healthy lifestyle patterns for children to start preventing obesity from a young age.

To prevent obesity in childhood, families can:

• Promote healthy eating: Families can try swapping out processed snacks like potato chips for healthier snacks like baked cinnamon apple crisps. Saying no to soft drinks is another great starting point.
• Get active together: Parents and children can both benefit from engaging in physical activity together. Make a tradition of physical activity, like playing frisbee or riding bikes together after school. Children ages 6 to 17 should get 60 minutes of physical activity per day.
• Ensure consistent sleep: Children who don't get enough sleep have a greater risk of developing obesity, type 2 diabetes, and other health conditions. The amount of uninterrupted sleep your child needs depends on their age group, but the key is a consistent bedtime—even on weekends.
• Minimize screen time: Too much screen time in childhood increases the risk of obesity, poor sleep, unhealthy eating, and more. Whenever possible, it's important to replace screen time with family time or physical activity. At a minimum, screens should be turned off at least one hour before bed.

If you are concerned about your child's weight, reach out to a healthcare provider. Your provider may be able to help you identify lifestyle factors that are contributing to your child's weight gain. They can also assess any health risks your child may have based on their weight or your family history.

Diet to Prevent Obesity

Obesity can be prevented by following basic principles of healthy eating . Here are simple changes you can make to your eating habits that will help you lose weight and prevent obesity.

Eat More Fruits and Vegetables

Eating a diet rich in fruits and vegetables decreases the risk of obesity. Fruits and vegetables contain a variety of beneficial nutrients and are associated with a lower risk for diabetes and insulin resistance . They are also high in fiber, which keeps you feeling full with fewer calories and ensures your digestive system stays regulated.

Focus on filling your plate with whole vegetables and fruits at every meal. Aim for lots of natural colors—carrots, sweet potatoes, broccoli, bananas, eggplant—the more color, the merrier.

Go easy (or eliminate) protein sources that are heavy in saturated fats, such as red meat and dairy. If you choose to cut out meat entirely, consult with a healthcare provider to ensure you are not at risk for nutritional deficiencies.

Does a Plant-Based Diet Prevent Obesity?

Eating more plant foods and less animal foods lowers insulin resistance and contributes to a healthier body mass index (BMI, an imperfect but commonly used metric). Following a plant-based diet will not increase the risk of obesity. However, more research is needed to evaluate the benefits of plant-based diets for reducing obesity long-term.

Avoid Processed Foods

Highly processed foods , like white bread and many boxed snack foods, are a common source of empty calories, which tend to add up quickly. A 2019 study found that people who were offered a highly processed diet consumed more calories and gained weight, while those offered a minimally processed diet ate less and lost weight.

There are many healthy alternatives to processed snacks that can be just as satisfying, such as:

• Unsalted almonds, cashews, walnuts, and pistachios
• Roasted chickpeas
• Crispy lettuce wraps
• Frozen yogurt-covered blueberries
• Baked banana chips

While it may take a little more time and creativity, planning and preparing healthy snacks can be an enjoyable and rewarding experience.

Limit Sugar and Artificial Sweeteners

It is important to keep your intake of added sugars low. According to current dietary guidelines, most adult women should have no more than 24 grams of sugar per day, while most adult men should have no more than 36.

Major sources of added sugar to avoid include: 

• Sugary beverages, including sodas and energy or sports drinks
• Grain desserts like pies, cookies, and cakes
• Fruit drinks (which are seldom 100% fruit juice)
• Dairy desserts like ice cream

Artificial sweeteners have been linked to obesity and diabetes , too. While some natural sweeteners like agave do not raise glucose as fast as table sugar, they still raise blood sugar and should also be used in moderation.

Reduce Saturated Fats

Numerous studies show that eating foods high in saturated fat contributes to obesity. Foods that are high in saturated fats include:

• Whole and reduced-fat milk
• Butter and dairy desserts
• Meat products, such as sausage, bacon, beef, hamburgers
• Cookies and other grain-based desserts
• Many fast-food dishes

Focus instead on sources of healthy fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats) like:

• Olive oil and canola oils
• Pumpkin and sesame seeds

Although these fats are healthier for you, they should still be limited to about 20% to 35% of daily calories. People with elevated cholesterol or vascular disease may need an even lower level.

Pay Attention to Beverages

A single, 12-ounce can of Coca-Cola contains 39 grams of sugar. That means one can of Coke alone exceeds the recommended daily intake of sugar.

Sugar and calories in soft drinks, energy drinks, sports drinks, and juices quickly add up and may contribute to weight gain. But drinks marketed as "sugar-free" and "low-calorie" aren't much better. Artificially sweetened drinks also carry a risk of numerous health problems, including obesity.

Rather than focusing on which artificial sweetener is best, it's better to avoid sweeteners in general. Make water or unsweetened drinks and your go-to instead.

Cook at Home

People who prepare meals at home are less likely to gain weight or develop type 2 diabetes, studies show.

One such study found that people who ate home-cooked meals more than five times per week were 28% less likely to have an overweight BMI than people who ate home-cooked meals less than three times per week. Eating more home-cooked meals was also associated with having less body fat.

BMI is a dated, flawed measure. It does not take into account factors such as body composition , ethnicity, sex, race, and age. Even though it is a biased measure, BMI is still widely used in the medical community because it’s an inexpensive and quick way to analyze a person’s potential health status and outcomes.

Exercising to Prevent Obesity

Most national and international guidelines recommend that the average adult get at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity per week. That means at least 30 minutes per day, five days per week.

Researchers have also found that people who walk at a brisk or fast pace are more likely to have a lower weight, lower BMI, and lower waist circumference compared to individuals doing other activities.  

In addition, experts recommend keeping active throughout the day, whether by using a standing desk, taking frequent stretch breaks, or finding ways to work in walking meetings throughout your day.

Reducing Stress to Prevent Obesity

Chronic stress raises levels of the stress hormone cortisol and leads to weight gain. It can also result in poor dietary choices, as cortisol and other stress hormones can increase “carb cravings” and make it difficult to exercise good judgment and willpower.

Look into the many healthy ways to beat stress, and find what works best for you. This might include:

• Going for a daily walk
• Engaging in regular yoga or tai chi
• Listening to music you love
• Getting together with friends

Studies show having a pet can lower blood pressure. Additionally, pets, especially dogs, can increase your level of physical activity and help you stave off weight gain.

Improving Sleep to Prevent Obesity

The role of sleep in overall well-being cannot be overstated. This extends to the goal of preventing obesity, too. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends seven or more hours of sleep for adults 18 and over and even more sleep for younger people.

Studies have linked later bedtimes to weight gain over time. One of these studies included 137,000 people from 26 countries. It showed that, compared to people who go to bed before 10 p.m., people who go to bed after 10 have a 20% greater risk of general and abdominal obesity. Meanwhile, the risk is up to 38% higher in people who go to bed after 2 a.m.

If you are having trouble falling asleep earlier, it may help to:

• Set a consistent bedtime.
• Make sure your bedroom is quiet, dark, and a comfortable temperature.
• Keep phones, computers, and televisions out of the bedroom.
• Cut off screen time within one hour of going to bed.
• Avoid large meals and caffeine before bedtime.
• Increase physical exercise to help your body relax better at night.

There are several possible contributors to obesity. The fact that the two biggest ones—diet and activity—are ones you can influence is good news. A healthy lifestyle that puts exercise and eating at its center can also bring myriad other health benefits. Getting good sleep and finding ways to reduce stress is important, too.

If you have made significant lifestyle changes and are still gaining weight or unable to lose weight, see a healthcare professional to rule out other possible causes of weight gain.

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By Yasmine S. Ali, MD, MSCI Yasmine Ali, MD, is board-certified in cardiology. She is an assistant clinical professor of medicine at Vanderbilt University School of Medicine and an award-winning physician writer.

Obesity Prevention Strategies

Turning Around the Epidemic

The fact that the obesity epidemic didn’t flash over countries like a wildfire-rather it smoldered and then slowly grew year after year-has made it even more difficult to combat, since its causes have become so intertwined into the social, environmental, and governmental fabric.

Yet efforts to combat obesity-primarily through prevention-are beginning to gain traction, if by a step at a time. To realize real strides, though, positive change must come to all parts of society: from governments and schools, businesses and non-profit organization, neighborhoods and communities, individuals and families. We need to change policies and create an environment where the default option is the healthy choice.

Evidence shows that obesity prevention policy and environmental change efforts should focus on facilitating a handful of key behaviors:

• This section of the website summarizes promising strategies for obesity prevention, based on a review of expert guidance from major governmental, professional, and public health advocacy organizations. Inside, you will find high-level recommendations for changes in key settings-families, early childcare, schools, worksites, healthcare organizations-and for broad, community-wide changes in the food and activity environments that can help make healthy choices easier choices, for all. Each page also includes links to toolkits, guidelines, and other useful resources for putting these obesity prevention strategies into practice. Over time, we will add new obesity prevention strategies, recommendations, and resources as more evidence emerges. Keep in mind that these obesity prevention recommendations are based primarily on a review of U.S. expert guidance, unless otherwise indicated; in other countries, different policy approaches may be needed to achieve improvements in food and physical activity environments.Choosing healthier foods (whole grains, fruits and vegetables, healthy fats and protein sources) and beverages
• Limiting unhealthy foods (refined grains and sweets, potatoes, red meat, processed meat) and beverages (sugary drinks)
• Increasing physical activity
• Limiting television time, screen time, and other “sit time”
• Improving sleep
• Reducing stress

Obesity and Weight Loss Strategies Essay

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• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Otc product and diet.

The obesity epidemic is among the most urgent healthcare issues in the United States and worldwide. According to recent estimations, between 39% and 49% of the world’s population are overweight or obese nowadays (Powell-Wiley et al., 2021). This trend has led to many people seeking weight loss through different means, including diet, eating behavior management, and pharmacological weight loss agents (Kushner, 2018). However, over-the-counter (OTC) weight loss products have also gained popularity despite serious health risks (Rodriguez-Guerra et al., 2021). Therefore, it is essential for healthcare professionals to keep the broad public well-informed about the nature and potential adverse effects of such products.

The model client is a 40-year-old man with a family history of obesity-related cardiovascular disease. The client pursues weight loss primarily out of concerns for personal health due to recently developed hypertension. The client has considered using an OTC, non-prescription herbal weight loss supplement, AMPK Metabolic Activator. The drug is advertised as a mixture of two botanical components that supposedly help the body burn stored abdominal fat (AMPK Metabolic Activator, n. d.). The patient’s product choice was primarily driven by the desire to achieve quick weight loss using natural products instead of synthetic medications.

However, the client was strongly advised against using OTC products due to a broad range of associated health hazards. Despite advertisement, most OTC herbal weight loss drugs are adulterated with active pharmaceutical agents (Dastjerdi et al., 2018). The pharmaceutical components in such products include tramadol, caffeine, fluoxetine, rizatriptan, venlafaxine, and methadone (Dastjerdi et al., 2018). Legal in most countries, these agents present serious health risks in case of excessive consumption. Furthermore, sibutramine, associated with a high risk of cardiovascular diseases even among consumers without a known history of CVDs, remains in many herbal medications (Rodriguez-Guerra et al., 2021). Therefore, the list of potential negative side-effects of the OTC weight loss products contradicts the client’s initial expectations and desires.

A healthier and more effective weight loss strategy is changing the lifestyle. Healthcare experts agree that weight loss depends primarily on reducing total caloric intake and sufficient physical activity (Kushner, 2018). Additionally, this strategy helps prevent a broad range of cardiovascular diseases and improves the overall physical condition. Therefore, a diet based on the client’s metabolic profile and health condition is the strategy’s primary focus. Experts recommend the calorie-reduced Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet, rich in fruits, vegetables, and low-fat dairy products, for patients with hypertension (Kushner, 2018). The proposed day 1 menu would consist of the following:

• a whole-wheat bagel with 2 tablespoons peanut butter, an orange, and a cup of fat-free milk for breakfast;
• spinach salad with reduced-sodium wheat crackers for lunch;
• baked cod with 1/2 cup brown rice pilaf with vegetables, 1/2 cup fresh green beans, and herbal tea for dinner (Sample menus for the DASH diet, 2020).

This diet corresponds to the client’s goals and is optimal for his health profile.

Intermittent fasting (IF) has become an increasingly popular approach to treating obesity. Its proponents argue that the strategy is more effective in addressing weight loss than traditional daily caloric intake reduction (Halpern & Mendes, 2021). The IF advocates claim that high insulin levels in the organism associated with high carbohydrate intake facilitate the development of obesity. Intermittent fasting addresses this issue by reducing insulin levels via specially developed fasting schedules. However, experimental models in animals and humans have repeatedly discredited the insulin-related theory (Halpern & Mendes, 2021). Nevertheless, many people still see IF as a preferable alternative, mainly due to its widely marketed supposed benefits and the absence of strict dietary limitations and excessive physical activity.

Obesity remains a significant public health hazard globally, requiring the development and broad introduction of efficient and affordable weight loss strategies and programs. While many still resort to OTC medications and other questionable weight loss strategies, public health professionals and institutions must promote evidence-based approaches. These include safe, personally developed, balanced dietary measures, prescription pharmaceutical agents, and a healthy lifestyle with sufficient physical activity and caloric intake.

AMPK Metabolic Activator (n. d.). Life Extension. Web.

Dastjerdi, A. G., Akhgari, M., Kamali, A., & Mousavi, Z. (2018). Principal component analysis of synthetic adulterants in herbal supplements advertised as weight loss drugs . Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 31 , 236–241. Web.

Halpern, B., & Mendes, T. B. (2021). Intermittent fasting for obesity and related disorders: unveiling myths, facts, and presumptions. Archives of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 65 (1). Web.

Kushner, R. F. (2018). Weight Loss Strategies for Treatment of Obesity: Lifestyle Management and Pharmacotherapy . Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases. Web.

Powell-Wiley, T. M., Poirier, P., Burke, L. E., J.-P., Després, Gordon-Larsen, P., Lavie, C. J., Lear,S. A., Ndumele, C. E., Neeland, I. J., Sanders, P., & St-Onge, M.-P. (2021). Obesity and cardiovascular disease: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association . Circulation, 143 (21), 984–1010. Web.

Rodriguez-Guerra, M., Yadav, M., Bhandari, M., Sinha, A., Bella, J. N., & Sklyar, E. (2021). Sibutramine as a cause of sudden cardiac death . Case Reports in Cardiology, 2021 , 1–5. Web.

Sample menus for the DASH diet (2020). Mayo Clinic. Web.

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Obesity Prevention

Obesity statistics.

Obesity is a chronic disease affecting an increasing number of children, teens and adults. Obesity rates among children in the U.S. have doubled since 1980, and have tripled for teens. About 19.7% of children ages 2 to 19 are considered obese, compared with over 41% of adults who are considered obese.

Earlier onset of type 2 diabetes, heart and blood vessel disease, and obesity-related depression and social isolation in children and teens are being seen more often by health care professionals. The longer a person is obese, the more significant obesity-related risk factors become. Given the chronic diseases and conditions associated with obesity and the fact that obesity is hard to treat, prevention is extremely important.

A primary reason that prevention of obesity is so vital in children is because the likelihood of childhood obesity persisting into adulthood increases as the child ages. This puts the person at high risk of diabetes, high blood pressure and heart disease.

Childhood Obesity

Children and teens can become overweight or obese because of poor eating habits and lack of physical activity. Genetics and lifestyle also contribute to a child’s weight status.

Recommendations for prevention of overweight and obesity in children and teens include the following:

Gradually work to change family eating habits and activity levels rather than focusing on a child’s weight.

Be a role model. Parents who eat healthy foods and participate in physical activity set an example, so a child is more likely to do the same.

Encourage physical activity. Children should have 60 minutes of moderate physical activity most days of the week. More than 60 minutes of activity may promote weight loss and provide weight maintenance.

Reduce screen time in front of phones, computers and TV to less than one to two hours daily.

Encourage children and teens to eat only when hungry and to eat slowly.

Don’t use food as a reward or withhold food as a punishment.

Keep the refrigerator stocked with fat-free or low-fat milk, fresh fruit and vegetables instead of soft drinks and snacks high in sugar and fat.

Serve at least five servings of fruits and vegetables daily.

Encourage children and teens to drink water rather than beverages with added sugar, such as soft drinks, sports drinks and fruit juice drinks.

Eat meals together as a family. Family meals can create healthier eating habits.

Does Breastfeeding Prevent Obesity?

The answer is complicated. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics and the CDC, breastfed babies are less likely to become overweight. The CDC also reports that the longer babies are fed at the breast (not just given breast milk from a bottle), the less likely they are to become overweight as they grow older. However, many formula-fed babies grow up to be adults of healthy weight.

Further research has questioned the link between breastfeeding and obesity. Parents who can afford to stay with their babies and breastfeed for three months or more are likely to be in higher income families and have more access to healthy food, health care and exercise opportunities for their children. These advantages could account for the lower incidence of obesity in these children. 

Preventing Obesity in Adults

Many of the strategies that produce successful weight loss and maintenance help prevent obesity. Improving eating habits and increasing physical activity play a vital role in preventing obesity. Recommendations for adults include:

Keep a food diary of what you eat, where you were and how you were feeling before and after you ate.

Eat five to nine servings of fruits and vegetables daily. A vegetable serving is 1 cup of raw vegetables or 1/2 cup of cooked vegetables or vegetable juice. A fruit serving is one piece of small to medium fresh fruit, 1/2 cup of canned or fresh fruit or fruit juice, or 1/4 cup of dried fruit.

Choose whole grain foods, such as brown rice and whole wheat bread. Don’t eat highly processed foods made with refined white sugar, flour, high fructose corn syrup and saturated fat.

Weigh and measure food to learn correct portion sizes. For example, a 3-ounce serving of meat is the size of a deck of cards. Don’t order supersized menu items.

Learn to read food nutrition labels and use them; keep the number of portions you are really eating in mind.

Balance the food “checkbook.” If you eat more calories than you burn, you will gain weight. Weigh yourself weekly.

Don’t eat foods that are high in “energy density,” or that have a lot of calories in a small amount of food. For example, an average cheeseburger with an order of fries can have as many as 1,000 calories and 30 or more grams of fat. By ordering a grilled chicken sandwich or a plain hamburger and a small salad with low-fat dressing, you can avoid hundreds of calories and eliminate much of the fat intake. For dessert, have a serving of fruit, yogurt, a small piece of angel food cake, or a piece of dark chocolate instead of frosted cake, ice cream or pie.

Simply reducing portion sizes and using a smaller plate can help you lose weight.

Aim for an average of 60 to 90 minutes or more of moderate to intense physical activity three to four days each week. Examples of moderate intensity exercise are walking a 15-minute mile or weeding and hoeing a garden. Running or playing singles tennis are examples of more intense activities.

Look for ways to get even 10 or 15 minutes of some type of activity during the day. Walking around the block or up and down a few flights of stairs is a good start.

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Obesity Strategies: What Can Be Done

At a glance.

Obesity is a complex and costly chronic disease with many contributing factors. Access to healthy, affordable foods and safe, convenient places for physical activity can impact obesity. Addressing obesity requires organizations and people to work together to create communities, environments, and systems that support healthy, active lifestyles for all.

The federal government is:

• Studying what works in communities to make it easier for people to be more physically active and have a healthier diet.
• Monitoring trends in obesity and related risk factors.
• Developing and promoting  guidelines on dietary patterns and amounts of physical activity needed for good health .
• Helping families with lower incomes get affordable, nutritious foods through programs such as the Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) and farm-to-education programs.
• Supporting children and families who are at higher risk for obesity through services at Federally Qualified Health Centers, Head Start, WIC, and other service agencies.
• Funding programs and providing training and resources for initiatives that promote healthy eating, food and nutrition security, and physical activity .
• Working with state, tribal, local, and territory governments, academia, the private sector, and nonprofit and community groups to implement the White House National Strategy on Hunger, Nutrition, and Health —to end hunger and reduce diet-related diseases and disparities.

Some states and communities are:

Two priority obesity-prevention strategies for state and local programs are:

• Improving nutrition, physical activity, and breastfeeding in early care and education programs.
• Establishing policies and activities that implement, spread, and sustain Family Healthy Weight Programs .

In addition, state and local programs are:

• Designing communities that connect sidewalks, bicycle routes, and public transportation with homes, schools, parks, and workplaces to increase physical activity.
• Expanding voucher incentive and produce prescription programs to make healthy foods more available.
• Promoting food service and nutrition guidelines in worksites, food pantries, and faith-based organizations.
• Implementing policies and activities that achieve continuity of care for breastfeeding .
• Partnering with business and civic leaders to plan and carry out local, culturally tailored interventions to address poor nutrition, physical inactivity, and tobacco use.

Health Care providers can:

• Measure patients' weight and height, calculate body mass index , and counsel them on its role in disease prevention.
• Refer patients with obesity to intensive programs, including Family Healthy Weight and Diabetes Prevention programs.
• Counsel patients about nutrition, physical activity, and optimal sleep.
• Use respectful and non-stigmatizing, person-first language in all weight-related discussions.
• Connect patients and families with community services to help them access healthy foods and ways to be active.
• Discuss the use of medications and other treatments for excess weight.
• Seek continuing medical education  about obesity.

Everyone can take steps to:

• MyPlate resources.
• Tips for healthy eating for a healthy weight .
• Get the recommended amount of physical activity.
• Get enough sleep .
• Manage stress .
• Talk to your health care provider about whether weight is a health concern. If so, discuss available obesity treatment options to help reduce potential health risks.
• Get involved in local efforts, such as local committees and councils , to improve options for healthier foods and physical activity.

CDC's obesity prevention efforts focus on policy and environmental strategies to make healthy eating and active living accessible for everyone.

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Strategies to Prevent Obesity

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The last reviewed date indicates when the evidence for this resource last underwent a comprehensive review.

Workgroups: Nutrition and Weight Status Workgroup

This website offers strategies for preventing and managing obesity. It notes that the obesity epidemic is a complex problem, and creating environments that support a healthy lifestyle requires an approach in which policymakers, state and local organizations, business and community leaders, schools and child care providers, and health care professionals work together. The site includes links to: 

• Resources for state and local programs
• Information about community efforts
• Information and tools to help individuals make healthy lifestyle changes

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Essay on Obesity

List of essays on obesity, essay on obesity – short essay (essay 1 – 150 words), essay on obesity (essay 2 – 250 words), essay on obesity – written in english (essay 3 – 300 words), essay on obesity – for school students (class 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 standard) (essay 4 – 400 words), essay on obesity – for college students (essay 5 – 500 words), essay on obesity – with causes and treatment (essay 6 – 600 words), essay on obesity – for science students (essay 7 – 750 words), essay on obesity – long essay for medical students (essay 8 – 1000 words).

Obesity is a chronic health condition in which the body fat reaches abnormal level. Obesity occurs when we consume much more amount of food than our body really needs on a daily basis. In other words, when the intake of calories is greater than the calories we burn out, it gives rise to obesity.

Audience: The below given essays are exclusively written for school students (Class 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 Standard), college, science and medical students.

Introduction:

Obesity means being excessively fat. A person would be said to be obese if his or her body mass index is beyond 30. Such a person has a body fat rate that is disproportionate to his body mass.

Obesity and the Body Mass Index:

The body mass index is calculated considering the weight and height of a person. Thus, it is a scientific way of determining the appropriate weight of any person. When the body mass index of a person indicates that he or she is obese, it exposes the person to make health risk.

Stopping Obesity:

There are two major ways to get the body mass index of a person to a moderate rate. The first is to maintain a strict diet. The second is to engage in regular physical exercise. These two approaches are aimed at reducing the amount of fat in the body.

Conclusion:

Obesity can lead to sudden death, heart attack, diabetes and may unwanted illnesses. Stop it by making healthy choices.

Obesity has become a big concern for the youth of today’s generation. Obesity is defined as a medical condition in which an individual gains excessive body fat. When the Body Mass Index (BMI) of a person is over 30, he/ she is termed as obese.

Obesity can be a genetic problem or a disorder that is caused due to unhealthy lifestyle habits of a person. Physical inactivity and the environment in which an individual lives, are also the factors that leads to obesity. It is also seen that when some individuals are in stress or depression, they start cultivating unhealthy eating habits which eventually leads to obesity. Medications like steroids is yet another reason for obesity.

Obesity has several serious health issues associated with it. Some of the impacts of obesity are diabetes, increase of cholesterol level, high blood pressure, etc. Social impacts of obesity includes loss of confidence in an individual, lowering of self-esteem, etc.

The risks of obesity needs to be prevented. This can be done by adopting healthy eating habits, doing some physical exercise regularly, avoiding stress, etc. Individuals should work on weight reduction in order to avoid obesity.

Obesity is indeed a health concern and needs to be prioritized. The management of obesity revolves around healthy eating habits and physical activity. Obesity, if not controlled in its initial stage can cause many severe health issues. So it is wiser to exercise daily and maintain a healthy lifestyle rather than being the victim of obesity.

Obesity can be defined as the clinical condition where accumulation of excessive fat takes place in the adipose tissue leading to worsening of health condition. Usually, the fat is deposited around the trunk and also the waist of the body or even around the periphery.

Obesity is actually a disease that has been spreading far and wide. It is preventable and certain measures are to be taken to curb it to a greater extend. Both in the developing and developed countries, obesity has been growing far and wide affecting the young and the old equally.

The alarming increase in obesity has resulted in stimulated death rate and health issues among the people. There are several methods adopted to lose weight and they include different diet types, physical activity and certain changes in the current lifestyle. Many of the companies are into minting money with the concept of inviting people to fight obesity.

In patients associated with increased risk factor related to obesity, there are certain drug therapies and other procedures adopted to lose weight. There are certain cost effective ways introduced by several companies to enable clinic-based weight loss programs.

Obesity can lead to premature death and even cause Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Cardiovascular diseases have also become the part and parcel of obese people. It includes stroke, hypertension, gall bladder disease, coronary heart disease and even cancers like breast cancer, prostate cancer, endometrial cancer and colon cancer. Other less severe arising due to obesity includes osteoarthritis, gastro-esophageal reflux disease and even infertility.

Hence, serious measures are to be taken to fight against this dreadful phenomenon that is spreading its wings far and wide. Giving proper education on benefits of staying fit and mindful eating is as important as curbing this issue. Utmost importance must be given to healthy eating habits right from the small age so that they follow the same until the end of their life.

Obesity is majorly a lifestyle disease attributed to the extra accumulation of fat in the body leading to negative health effects on a person. Ironically, although prevalent at a large scale in many countries, including India, it is one of the most neglect health problems. It is more often ignored even if told by the doctor that the person is obese. Only when people start acquiring other health issues such as heart disease, blood pressure or diabetes, they start taking the problem of obesity seriously.

Obesity Statistics in India:

As per a report, India happens to figure as the third country in the world with the most obese people. This should be a troubling fact for India. However, we are yet to see concrete measures being adopted by the people to remain fit.

Causes of Obesity:

Sedentary lifestyle, alcohol, junk food, medications and some diseases such as hypothyroidism are considered as the factors which lead to obesity. Even children seem to be glued to televisions, laptops and video games which have taken away the urge for physical activities from them. Adding to this, the consumption of junk food has further aggravated the growing problem of obesity in children.

In the case of adults, most of the professions of today make use of computers which again makes people sit for long hours in one place. Also, the hectic lifestyle of today makes it difficult for people to spare time for physical activities and people usually remain stressed most of the times. All this has contributed significantly to the rise of obesity in India.

Obesity and BMI:

Body Mass Index (BMI) is the measure which allows a person to calculate how to fit he or she is. In other words, the BMI tells you if you are obese or not. BMI is calculated by dividing the weight of a person in kg with the square of his / her height in metres. The number thus obtained is called the BMI. A BMI of less than 25 is considered optimal. However, if a person has a BMI over 30 he/she is termed as obese.

What is a matter of concern is that with growing urbanisation there has been a rapid increase of obese people in India? It is of utmost importance to consider this health issue a serious threat to the future of our country as a healthy body is important for a healthy soul. We should all be mindful of what we eat and what effect it has on our body. It is our utmost duty to educate not just ourselves but others as well about this serious health hazard.

Obesity can be defined as a condition (medical) that is the accumulation of body fat to an extent that the excess fat begins to have a lot of negative effects on the health of the individual. Obesity is determined by examining the body mass index (BMI) of the person. The BMI is gotten by dividing the weight of the person in kilogram by the height of the person squared.

When the BMI of a person is more than 30, the person is classified as being obese, when the BMI falls between 25 and 30, the person is said to be overweight. In a few countries in East Asia, lower values for the BMI are used. Obesity has been proven to influence the likelihood and risk of many conditions and disease, most especially diabetes of type 2, cardiovascular diseases, sleeplessness that is obstructive, depression, osteoarthritis and some cancer types.

In most cases, obesity is caused through a combination of genetic susceptibility, a lack of or inadequate physical activity, excessive intake of food. Some cases of obesity are primarily caused by mental disorder, medications, endocrine disorders or genes. There is no medical data to support the fact that people suffering from obesity eat very little but gain a lot of weight because of slower metabolism. It has been discovered that an obese person usually expends much more energy than other people as a result of the required energy that is needed to maintain a body mass that is increased.

It is very possible to prevent obesity with a combination of personal choices and social changes. The major treatments are exercising and a change in diet. We can improve the quality of our diet by reducing our consumption of foods that are energy-dense like those that are high in sugars or fat and by trying to increase our dietary fibre intake.

We can also accompany the appropriate diet with the use of medications to help in reducing appetite and decreasing the absorption of fat. If medication, exercise and diet are not yielding any positive results, surgery or gastric balloon can also be carried out to decrease the volume of the stomach and also reduce the intestines’ length which leads to the feel of the person get full early or a reduction in the ability to get and absorb different nutrients from a food.

Obesity is the leading cause of ill-health and death all over the world that is preventable. The rate of obesity in children and adults has drastically increased. In 2015, a whopping 12 percent of adults which is about 600 million and about 100 million children all around the world were found to be obese.

It has also been discovered that women are more obese than men. A lot of government and private institutions and bodies have stated that obesity is top of the list of the most difficult and serious problems of public health that we have in the world today. In the world we live today, there is a lot of stigmatisation of obese people.

We all know how troubling the problem of obesity truly is. It is mainly a form of a medical condition wherein the body tends to accumulate excessive fat which in turn has negative repercussions on the health of an individual.

Given the current lifestyle and dietary style, it has become more common than ever. More and more people are being diagnosed with obesity. Such is its prevalence that it has been termed as an epidemic in the USA. Those who suffer from obesity are at a much higher risk of diabetes, heart diseases and even cancer.

In order to gain a deeper understanding of obesity, it is important to learn what the key causes of obesity are. In a layman term, if your calorie consumption exceeds what you burn because of daily activities and exercises, it is likely to lead to obesity. It is caused over a prolonged period of time when your calorie intake keeps exceeding the calories burned.

Here are some of the key causes which are known to be the driving factors for obesity.

If your diet tends to be rich in fat and contains massive calorie intake, you are all set to suffer from obesity.

Sedentary Lifestyle:

With most people sticking to their desk jobs and living a sedentary lifestyle, the body tends to get obese easily.

Of course, the genetic framework has a lot to do with obesity. If your parents are obese, the chance of you being obese is quite high.

The weight which women gain during their pregnancy can be very hard to shed and this is often one of the top causes of obesity.

Sleep Cycle:

If you are not getting an adequate amount of sleep, it can have an impact on the hormones which might trigger hunger signals. Overall, these linked events tend to make you obese.

Hormonal Disorder:

There are several hormonal changes which are known to be direct causes of obesity. The imbalance of the thyroid stimulating hormone, for instance, is one of the key factors when it comes to obesity.

Now that we know the key causes, let us look at the possible ways by which you can handle it.

Treatment for Obesity:

As strange as it may sound, the treatment for obesity is really simple. All you need to do is follow the right diet and back it with an adequate amount of exercise. If you can succeed in doing so, it will give you the perfect head-start into your journey of getting in shape and bidding goodbye to obesity.

There are a lot of different kinds and styles of diet plans for obesity which are available. You can choose the one which you deem fit. We recommend not opting for crash dieting as it is known to have several repercussions and can make your body terribly weak.

The key here is to stick to a balanced diet which can help you retain the essential nutrients, minerals, and, vitamins and shed the unwanted fat and carbs.

Just like the diet, there are several workout plans for obesity which are available. It is upon you to find out which of the workout plan seems to be apt for you. Choose cardio exercises and dance routines like Zumba to shed the unwanted body weight. Yoga is yet another method to get rid of obesity.

So, follow a blend of these and you will be able to deal with the trouble of obesity in no time. We believe that following these tips will help you get rid of obesity and stay in shape.

Obesity and overweight is a top health concern in the world due to the impact it has on the lives of individuals. Obesity is defined as a condition in which an individual has excessive body fat and is measured using the body mass index (BMI) such that, when an individual’s BMI is above 30, he or she is termed obese. The BMI is calculated using body weight and height and it is different for all individuals.

Obesity has been determined as a risk factor for many diseases. It results from dietary habits, genetics, and lifestyle habits including physical inactivity. Obesity can be prevented so that individuals do not end up having serious complications and health problems. Chronic illnesses like diabetes, heart diseases and relate to obesity in terms of causes and complications.

Factors Influencing Obesity:

Obesity is not only as a result of lifestyle habits as most people put it. There are other important factors that influence obesity. Genetics is one of those factors. A person could be born with genes that predispose them to obesity and they will also have difficulty in losing weight because it is an inborn factor.

The environment also influences obesity because the diet is similar in certain environs. In certain environments, like school, the food available is fast foods and the chances of getting healthy foods is very low, leading to obesity. Also, physical inactivity is an environmental factor for obesity because some places have no fields or tracks where people can jog or maybe the place is very unsafe and people rarely go out to exercise.

Mental health affects the eating habits of individuals. There is a habit of stress eating when a person is depressed and it could result in overweight or obesity if the person remains unhealthy for long period of time.

The overall health of individuals also matter. If a person is unwell and is prescribed with steroids, they may end up being obese. Steroidal medications enable weight gain as a side effect.

Complications of Obesity:

Obesity is a health concern because its complications are severe. Significant social and health problems are experienced by obese people. Socially, they will be bullied and their self-esteem will be low as they will perceive themselves as unworthy.

Chronic illnesses like diabetes results from obesity. Diabetes type 2 has been directly linked to obesity. This condition involves the increased blood sugars in the body and body cells are not responding to insulin as they should. The insulin in the body could also be inadequate due to decreased production. High blood sugar concentrations result in symptoms like frequent hunger, thirst and urination. The symptoms of complicated stages of diabetes type 2 include loss of vision, renal failure and heart failure and eventually death. The importance of having a normal BMI is the ability of the body to control blood sugars.

Another complication is the heightened blood pressures. Obesity has been defined as excessive body fat. The body fat accumulates in blood vessels making them narrow. Narrow blood vessels cause the blood pressures to rise. Increased blood pressure causes the heart to start failing in its physiological functions. Heart failure is the end result in this condition of increased blood pressures.

There is a significant increase in cholesterol in blood of people who are obese. High blood cholesterol levels causes the deposition of fats in various parts of the body and organs. Deposition of fats in the heart and blood vessels result in heart diseases. There are other conditions that result from hypercholesterolemia.

Other chronic illnesses like cancer can also arise from obesity because inflammation of body cells and tissues occurs in order to store fats in obese people. This could result in abnormal growths and alteration of cell morphology. The abnormal growths could be cancerous.

Management of Obesity:

For the people at risk of developing obesity, prevention methods can be implemented. Prevention included a healthy diet and physical activity. The diet and physical activity patterns should be regular and realizable to avoid strains that could result in complications.

Some risk factors for obesity are non-modifiable for example genetics. When a person in genetically predisposed, the lifestyle modifications may be have help.

For the individuals who are already obese, they can work on weight reduction through healthy diets and physical exercises.

In conclusion, obesity is indeed a major health concern because the health complications are very serious. Factors influencing obesity are both modifiable and non-modifiable. The management of obesity revolves around diet and physical activity and so it is important to remain fit.

In olden days, obesity used to affect only adults. However, in the present time, obesity has become a worldwide problem that hits the kids as well. Let’s find out the most prevalent causes of obesity.

Factors Causing Obesity:

Obesity can be due to genetic factors. If a person’s family has a history of obesity, chances are high that he/ she would also be affected by obesity, sooner or later in life.

The second reason is having a poor lifestyle. Now, there are a variety of factors that fall under the category of poor lifestyle. An excessive diet, i.e., eating more than you need is a definite way to attain the stage of obesity. Needless to say, the extra calories are changed into fat and cause obesity.

Junk foods, fried foods, refined foods with high fats and sugar are also responsible for causing obesity in both adults and kids. Lack of physical activity prevents the burning of extra calories, again, leading us all to the path of obesity.

But sometimes, there may also be some indirect causes of obesity. The secondary reasons could be related to our mental and psychological health. Depression, anxiety, stress, and emotional troubles are well-known factors of obesity.

Physical ailments such as hypothyroidism, ovarian cysts, and diabetes often complicate the physical condition and play a massive role in abnormal weight gain.

Moreover, certain medications, such as steroids, antidepressants, and contraceptive pills, have been seen interfering with the metabolic activities of the body. As a result, the long-term use of such drugs can cause obesity. Adding to that, regular consumption of alcohol and smoking are also connected to the condition of obesity.

Harmful Effects of Obesity:

On the surface, obesity may look like a single problem. But, in reality, it is the mother of several major health issues. Obesity simply means excessive fat depositing into our body including the arteries. The drastic consequence of such high cholesterol levels shows up in the form of heart attacks and other life-threatening cardiac troubles.

The fat deposition also hampers the elasticity of the arteries. That means obesity can cause havoc in our body by altering the blood pressure to an abnormal range. And this is just the tip of the iceberg. Obesity is known to create an endless list of problems.

In extreme cases, this disorder gives birth to acute diseases like diabetes and cancer. The weight gain due to obesity puts a lot of pressure on the bones of the body, especially of the legs. This, in turn, makes our bones weak and disturbs their smooth movement. A person suffering from obesity also has higher chances of developing infertility issues and sleep troubles.

Many obese people are seen to be struggling with breathing problems too. In the chronic form, the condition can grow into asthma. The psychological effects of obesity are another serious topic. You can say that obesity and depression form a loop. The more a person is obese, the worse is his/ her depression stage.

How to Control and Treat Obesity:

The simplest and most effective way, to begin with, is changing our diet. There are two factors to consider in the diet plan. First is what and what not to eat. Second is how much to eat.

If you really want to get rid of obesity, include more and more green vegetables in your diet. Spinach, beans, kale, broccoli, cauliflower, asparagus, etc., have enough vitamins and minerals and quite low calories. Other healthier options are mushrooms, pumpkin, beetroots, and sweet potatoes, etc.

Opt for fresh fruits, especially citrus fruits, and berries. Oranges, grapes, pomegranate, pineapple, cherries, strawberries, lime, and cranberries are good for the body. They have low sugar content and are also helpful in strengthening our immune system. Eating the whole fruits is a more preferable way in comparison to gulping the fruit juices. Fruits, when eaten whole, have more fibers and less sugar.

Consuming a big bowl of salad is also great for dealing with the obesity problem. A salad that includes fibrous foods such as carrots, radish, lettuce, tomatoes, works better at satiating the hunger pangs without the risk of weight gain.

A high protein diet of eggs, fish, lean meats, etc., is an excellent choice to get rid of obesity. Take enough of omega fatty acids. Remember to drink plenty of water. Keeping yourself hydrated is a smart way to avoid overeating. Water also helps in removing the toxins and excess fat from the body.

As much as possible, avoid fats, sugars, refined flours, and oily foods to keep the weight in control. Control your portion size. Replace the three heavy meals with small and frequent meals during the day. Snacking on sugarless smoothies, dry fruits, etc., is much recommended.

Regular exercise plays an indispensable role in tackling the obesity problem. Whenever possible, walk to the market, take stairs instead of a lift. Physical activity can be in any other form. It could be a favorite hobby like swimming, cycling, lawn tennis, or light jogging.

Meditation and yoga are quite powerful practices to drive away the stress, depression and thus, obesity. But in more serious cases, meeting a physician is the most appropriate strategy. Sometimes, the right medicines and surgical procedures are necessary to control the health condition.

Obesity is spreading like an epidemic, haunting both the adults and the kids. Although genetic factors and other physical ailments play a role, the problem is mostly caused by a reckless lifestyle.

By changing our way of living, we can surely take control of our health. In other words, it would be possible to eliminate the condition of obesity from our lives completely by leading a healthy lifestyle.

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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Obesity — The Most Common Causes of Obesity

The Most Common Causes of Obesity

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Can Artificial Intelligence Speak for Incapacitated Patients at the End of Life?

• 1 Department of Medicine, the University of California, San Francisco
• 2 Divisions of Geriatrics, Palliative, and Extended Care, the University of California, San Francisco
• 3 Pulmonary, Critical Care, Allergy, and Sleep Medicine, the University of California, San Francisco
• Editor's Note Artificial Intelligence as Surrogate Decision-Maker Deborah Grady, MD, MPH JAMA Internal Medicine

Imagine meeting with the daughter of a critically ill patient. The patient (her mother) had a cardiac arrest, is in multiorgan failure, and cannot communicate. The daughter is uncomfortable making decisions because they are estranged and never discussed what her mother would want in this type of situation. The patient has no advance directive or alternative surrogate.

Now imagine this meeting taking place in a future where the mother’s medical visits have been audio recorded. Furthermore, you have access to an artificial intelligence (AI) algorithm that can identify and play excerpts of the mother talking about what mattered most to her. You and the daughter listen to these recordings together. Then you share that another algorithm, trained on 7 million patient records, predicts that the mother’s chance of walking again is less than 5%. It also predicts that 3 of 4 people like her—a registered Sierra Club member and volunteer dog walker who regularly purchased gardening equipment—would want to pursue comfort-focused treatment in this situation. Acknowledging that predictions cannot remove all uncertainty, you ask the daughter what she is thinking and feeling about this news.

• Editor's Note Artificial Intelligence as Surrogate Decision-Maker JAMA Internal Medicine

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Brender TD , Smith AK , Block BL. Can Artificial Intelligence Speak for Incapacitated Patients at the End of Life? JAMA Intern Med. Published online July 22, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2024.2676

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Sonya Massey’s death: How to prevent more killings of defenseless Black women

By Onyeka T. Otugo and Adaira I. Landry July 26, 2024

O n July 6, 2024, Sonya Massey, 36, called 911 to report a potential home intruder at her home in Springfield, Ill. “Don’t hurt me,” were her first words to the two officers who responded. Deputy Sean Grayson reassured her, “Why would I hurt you? You called us.” When Massey was questioned about her mental well-being, she confirmed taking her medicine. Minutes later, Grayson shot and killed her. After the shooting, Grayson labeled her as “crazy” and not deserving of first aid. Video of the killing of Massey was released this week, and chillingly conveys how yet another defenseless Black woman was seen as a threat by armed police officers.

Between 2019 and 2021, approximately  180 calls for help resulted in law enforcement shooting and killing the very people in need. A majority of these individuals had a history of a mental health crisis or were in an active mental health crisis that they or a family member were reporting.

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Emergency physicians like us are trained and expected to respond to high-risk, potentially violent situations every shift. Emergency department staff experience high rates of verbal and physical assault . Triggers of escalation may be related to mental health crises, illicit substance use, personality disorder, or spontaneous and unpredictable outbursts in other otherwise emotionally stable people. When a patient appears agitated, we attempt to de-escalate the situation by lowering our voices, speaking slowly, and offering reassurance. At times, we negotiate their needs with services we can provide. We try to avoid speaking loudly, crowding the patient, and cursing at the patient, as Grayson did. If possible, we slowly peel back security in the room to remove any sense of threat the patient may perceive.

If verbal de-escalation is unsuccessful and if a patient remains agitated, medications and restraints are then used. Oral medications, versus intramuscular injections, are preferred, when safe to administer, as they are less traumatic for patients.  No matter the cause, clinicians desire to practice controlled and  safe de-escalation  using verbal redirection as a first line, followed by mechanical restraints and the use of medications.

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Massey’s family has confirmed her diagnosis of  paranoid schizophrenia . Individuals living with paranoid schizophrenia may report home intruders and may struggle with focus and organization. In the released body cam footage, Massey was distracted, unsettled, and frightened. She required both redirection and reassurance. These behaviors suggest to us, as emergency physicians, that a patient may have a mental health issue that needs further attention. Given Massey’s medical history and suspicion of an intruder, her unease and fear in front of the officers seem reasonable. Regardless of her mental health status, being alone with armed officers, especially after hearing a potential intruder outside, could be disorienting and intimidating for anyone. Nothing about her behavior in the footage appeared to be difficult to control or redirect when compared to the behaviors of similarly distressed patients in the emergency department.

Controlling distressed individuals can require specific skills and pose challenges. However, when errors occur, clinicians are ethically bound to disclose the truth. Massey’s father was told that she had been killed by an intruder . Another person on the scene called the cause of death “ self-inflicted ,” implying she committed suicide. These inaccuracies, along with Grayson calling Massey “crazy,” weaponized her mental health condition and minimized Grayson’s actions. That the truth can be concealed or be completely subverted by law enforcement is gravely concerning for us as physicians and Black women.

There is another critical moment that needs to be addressed, and that is the speed with which Massey’s interaction with police quickly went from routine to deadly. As two academic, Black women physicians, we have become familiar with the same speed at which we can turn from “pet to threat.” The “ pet to threat ” phenomenon, coined by Dr. Kecia Thomas, describes how Black women are treated in the workplace and academia when they demonstrate ambition and assertiveness. The classic example is of a Black woman who is seen as a “pet project,” someone who needs support and guidance. And yet, a shattering change occurs when this person shows growth, authority, passion, fear, confusion, or empowerment.

Throughout our medical education, training, and careers, when expressing emotions such as fear, confusion, anger or even disappointment, we were not afforded the same grace, compassion, or resources as our peers. Massey’s killing is a significant example of the ways the “pet to threat” phenomenon transcends the workplace. Even in her most vulnerable moment, retreating to her kitchen floor, hands in the air, apologizing for her actions, she swiftly shifted from “in need” to threatening.

Related: Mental health crisis centers and EmPATH units: offering care that busy ERs can’t

Massey’s tragic story highlights the importance of officers being compassionate to those seeking support, being trained on safe de-escalation tactics, and the need for accessible and specialized mental health crisis response teams. Only  15-17%  of police agencies have Crisis Intervention Trainings (CIT) that train officers on how to respond to mental health crises.  CIT programs have been shown to decrease mental health stigma, reduce the force used by officers, and reroute people to mental health facilities instead of jail. However, these trainings are not universally mandated.

CIT training should be mandatory for all police officers. However, police officers should not be expected to replace a trained mental health professional. In the emergency department, we work in teams with our nursing staff, social workers, and psychiatry team. States should also invest in programs and the use of mental health professionals similar to  Oregon’s CAHOOTS program ,  San Francisco’s Crisis Response Unit , and  Massachusetts’ Community Assistance Response and Engagement , which incorporate social workers and mental health professionals during responses to mental health crises. These programs have demonstrated not only a  reduction in hospital and public safety costs  but also provide a safer environment for individuals experiencing a mental health crisis, allowing them to receive the care they need.

In a society that has repeatedly failed Black women, Sonya Massey’s final words, “Okay, I’m sorry,” have left us unsettled that she felt responsible for a system that failed her.

Onyeka T. Otugo is an emergency medicine physician at Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Boston and an instructor in emergency medicine at Harvard Medical School. Adaira I. Landry is an emergency medicine physician at Brigham and Women’s Hospital and an assistant professor of emergency medicine at Harvard Medical School.

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Comprehensive application of a systems approach to obesity prevention: a scoping review of empirical evidence

1 Centre for Exercise, Nutrition and Health Sciences, School for Policy Studies, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

Mohammed Alharbi

Steve allender.

2 Global Centre for Preventive Health and Nutrition (GLOBE), Institute for Health Transformation, Faculty of Health, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia

Boyd Swinburn

3 School of Population Health, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

Remco Peters

Charlie foster, associated data.

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/ Supplementary material , further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

A systems approach to obesity prevention is increasingly urged. However, confusion exists on what a systems approach entails in practice, and the empirical evidence on this new approach is unclear. This scoping review aimed to identify and synthesise studies/programmes that have comprehensively applied a systems approach to obesity prevention in intervention development, delivery/implementation, and evaluation. By searching international databases and grey literature, only three studies (10 publications) met inclusion criteria, which might be explained partially by suboptimal reporting. No conclusion on the effectiveness of this approach can be drawn yet due to the limited evidence base. We identified common features shared by the included studies, such as measuring ongoing changes, in addition to endpoint outcomes, and supporting capacity building. Some facilitators and barriers to applying a comprehensive systems approach in practice were identified. More well-designed and reported studies are needed, especially from low- and middle-income countries.

1. Introduction

Obesity is driven by interactions of complex factors, including environmental, social/cultural, political, economic, and behavioural dimensions, making obesity prevention challenging ( 1 ). Techniques from systems science have been advocated as potential tools to address this complexity ( 2 ). These tools can help identify the relationships amongst factors involved in a complex obesogenic environment/system and understand how these change over time. The use of a Causal Loop Diagram (CLD), for example, as one of the many tools, helps investigate and visualise the causal structure of a complex system, and identify feedback mechanisms and the ‘leverage points’ that produce the desired outcome(s). Previously used approaches in obesity prevention were limited in their usefulness in understanding the dynamic relationships amongst the factors that contribute to obesity. Acquiring a deeper understanding and thinking in terms of these mechanisms (feedbacks and delays), aligned with the structure and dynamics of the community, may also help design more effective and sustainable interventions to prevent obesity ( 3 ).

Multiple approaches exist to understand and address complexity within traditions of systems thinking. This means that a systems approach to tackling obesity could take different forms ( 4 ). Systems thinking approaches generally conform to ‘hard,’ ‘soft,’ or ‘critical’ traditions. Each has a particular focus within systems thinking, and has its own unique set of methods. Hard system approaches express systems in quantitative terms, and typically involve the use of mathematical modelling to predict or explain the system’s behaviour. Soft systems approaches consider the system to be an epistemological construct instead of a real-world entity. This approach involves the use of qualitative methods, and incorporates a variety of perspectives from stakeholders within the system to understand the problem ( 4 ). The critical systems tradition has its roots in the soft systems tradition though emphasises the influence and perceptions of power relations on the problem. This is perceived to be inadequately addressed in the other systems traditions ( 4 ). Despite the clear differences between the traditions, in practice these often overlap and/or work synergistically ( 4 ).

Common approaches stem from system dynamics that seek to surface and use mental models of cause and effect within specific problems and identify relationships of feedback and the impacts of change over time within a system. Any adoption of a systems approach to obesity intervention should be informed by a clearly defined branch of systems sciences. Approaches should recognise nonlinear and dynamic interactions between variables operating across different levels or subsystems within the environment where a target population lives. Intervention development, implementation and evaluation must actively engage with this complexity both across and within intervention components/settings. This means that an intervention which solely comprises multiple components and/or operating at multiple settings is not necessarily an intervention taking a systems approach ( 5–7 ).

Applying a systems approach involves utilising mental/computational models, feedback loops and structures within a system; and this may re-orient the goals, structures, and resources of the system ( 5 , 7 ). Models are formed based on the scientific and/or practical knowledge of the people who have built them. They provide a visual presentation of the system or problem being investigated. Feedback loops which can be reinforcing and balancing, describe cause and effect relationships.

Despite the concepts and terminology of systems approaches existing for several decades ( 8 , 9 ), empirical knowledge about their application and effectiveness for obesity prevention is limited. More clarity is required regarding what systems-based obesity prevention interventions look like in practice.

Several reviews have used the term ‘whole system approach’ (WSA) to identify obesity prevention programmes. In 2010–2011, three reviews were conducted by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) to identify the key elements ( 6 ), effectiveness ( 10 ) and barriers/facilitators ( 11 ) of WSA to obesity prevention. However, due to lack of studies, these NICE reviews widened the definition of WSA to include multi-level/multi-setting programmes and proposed a list of 10 features of a WSA to tackle obesity based on their wider definition. A later systematic review aimed to synthesise available evidence on WSA targeting obesity and other public health areas based on the NICE 10 proposed WSA features ( 12 ). However, since these features were developed based on studies that did not show all characteristics of a systems approach, this later review included multi-level/multi-setting interventions. The authors of this review recognised the need to re-define WSA. The 2019 Public Health England guide to support local approaches to promoting a healthy weight using a WSA offered a better description of WSA ( 13 ). Although some of the case studies included in this guidance might not show evidence of taking a systems approach in all intervention stages, the definition and guidance offered in this document recognise essential features of systems thinking. Thus, they are helpful for the academic community, public health practitioners and policy makers in a practical sense. More recently, a systematic review identified different systems methods used to evaluate public health interventions.

To date, no systematic reviews have been specifically designed to identify programmes or studies that applied systems thinking across all stages of an intervention’s life cycle.

Therefore, we conducted a systematic scoping review to identify and synthesise programmes/studies that have comprehensively used a systems approach to address obesity. A ‘comprehensive’ application of a systems approach should demonstrate systems thinking in all key stages of an intervention’s life cycle, not just at the development stage. As a result, we excluded some studies that applied a systems approach at the intervention development stage but did not clearly report how they implemented or evaluated the developed interventions in a way that demonstrated systems thinking. It is important to note that the purpose of our review was not to identify or define authentic applications of a systems approach to obesity interventions.

• Our specific research questions were: How many studies or intervention programmes have made a comprehensive application of a systems approach to obesity prevention? (see Methods for our inclusion criteria)?
• What is the available empirical evidence on the effectiveness of included programmes/studies that demonstrated systems thinking in all stages of the intervention’s life cycle?
• Were there any adaptations incorporated into the systems approach to obesity prevention to suit different settings?
• What were the main features shared by studies/programmes that made a comprehensive application of a systems approach to obesity prevention?
• What are the reported barriers and facilitators to applying this systems approach to obesity prevention?

Our review adopted the five stages framework provided by Arksey and O’Malley ( 14 ) and Levac et al. ( 15 ) and used the reporting criteria of The PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) ( 16 ). For research question 2, studies should have reported at least behavioural or anthropometric outcomes. In addition, we included other outcomes, such as intervention implementation, cost-effectiveness, and psychosocial impact. Any peer-reviewed research or grey literature was considered. We excluded theoretical literature, editorials, opinion pieces/commentaries and conference abstracts. We also excluded studies that used systems science to understand the mechanisms of obesity unless these aimed to inform the development of a systems-based intervention and the intervention has been implemented/evaluated. To be considered a comprehensive application of a systems approach , studies/programmes had to meet all the following criteria associated with the development, delivery/implementation, and monitoring/evaluation stages of an intervention’s life cycle:

Foster-Fishman framework ( 16 ).

• The chosen approach to deliver (for experimental purpose) or implement (as a public health initiative) the intervention showed evidence of recognising the dynamic and complex nature of the intervention and the system for which the intervention was developed.
• The chosen approach to monitor/evaluate the developed intervention also showed evidence of recognising the dynamic and complex nature of the intervention and the system for which the intervention was developed.

The Foster-Fishman’s framework was selected as a part of our criteria during the study selection process. The framework provides some clarity about what a systems approach to intervention development might entail. It describes systems approaches as comprising ‘bounding the system,’ ‘understanding system parts as root causes,’ ‘assessing system interactions,’ and ‘identifying levers for change’ ( 17 ).

Several questions were used to determine study eligibility against each intervention stage. For example, for the development stage, we considered ‘have the authors specified the theoretical underpinning of the systems approach applied to develop the intervention and justified their choice?’; and ‘have the authors described clearly the methods applied to develop the intervention and justified their choice?’

For the implantation stage, example questions were: ‘have the authors specified the responsibilities of all individuals and organisations involved in the delivery of jointly identified and prioritised intervention actions?’; and ‘have the authors described in sufficient detail what were delivered/implemented, including the initial plan and subsequent changes to the initial plan?.’ For the evaluation stage, we asked, for example, ‘have any evaluation outcomes been used to review and update stakeholders’ understanding of the system gained collectively prior to intervention delivery?’

We did not apply any restrictions on research/community settings or participants characteristics. We searched the following databases from inception to February 2021: Web of Science, PubMed, and MEDLINE. Moreover, grey literature was searched with particular attention to significant bodies, and hand searches were also used. Search terms are provided in Supplementary material 1 .

We imported all references and removed duplicates in Covidence online software ( 18 ). Two reviewers independently conducted the titles and abstracts screening and selected articles based on the predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Then, we extracted and recorded relevant data using a customised form. We extracted data on the author(s), year and type of publication, location/setting, targeted participants or population group, study aims, systems methods/tools, intervention details, study design, outcome measures, and key findings from each programme/study. The Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) extension abstracts (SW-CRT) ( 19 ) and the standard Critical Appraisal Skills Programme and EPPI-Centre tools ( 20 ) were used to assess the included studies.

3.1. Articles retrieved

We identified 2,396 articles. After removing duplicates, 1,804 records underwent title and abstract screening, and 209 underwent full-text review ( Figure 1 ). Of these, 10 articles met the inclusion criteria.

Flow diagram of scoping review study identification.

Ten articles from two countries were published between 2016 and 2022. Three articles describe the design and methods of three programmes for preventing childhood obesity ( 21–23 ). The remaining seven articles report on a process evaluation and the key findings of the included intervention programmes ( 24–30 ).

3.2. How many studies or intervention programmes have made a comprehensive application of a systems approach to obesity prevention according to the definition used in this review?

Three obesity prevention interventions meet our inclusion criteria to apply a systems approach to obesity prevention ( Table 2 ) comprehensively. All excluded studies/programmes and reasons for exclusion are provided in Supplementary material 2 . We describe the three included programmes below.

A summary of studies that made a comprehensive application of a systems approach to developing, delivering and evaluating childhood obesity prevention according to the criteria used in this review.

3.2.1. The whole of systems trial of prevention strategies for childhood obesity and the reflexive evidence and systems interventions to prevent obesity and non-communicable disease study

These two studies were conducted in Victoria, Australia, using a similar methodological approach (systems dynamic) to intervention development, implementation, and evaluation ( 21 ). The whole of systems trial of prevention strategies for childhood obesity (WHOSTOPS) study (Western Victoria) predated reflexive evidence and systems interventions to prevent obesity and non-communicable disease (RESPOND; Northern Victoria), the latter extended the approach pioneered in the earlier trial ( 23 ).

3.2.1.1. Intervention development

Both studies ( 21 , 23 , 28–30 ) facilitated a deeper and shared understanding of system components such as systems norms, human resources, social resources, economic resources, operations, and regulations. This included assessing alignment of current system with values and assumptions of targeted outcome or change and assessing degree to which current system has in place or is building the infrastructure to support goals or targeted outcome.

In the next step, both studies started to explore the interactions and interdependencies amongst system subsystems or components and how the system self-regulates using Group Model Building (GMB) workshops and co-produced CLD. GMB is a system dynamics method that provides a workshop structure to engage diverse stakeholders in collective activities to create a dynamic system model known as a CLD. These visualised the nonlinear and dynamic interactions between variables operating across different levels or subsystems within the environment. The CLD was used as a representation of the system at the third workshop with a broad group of community members to identify and prioritise levers that can be used to change the system ( 21 , 23 , 28–30 ).

3.2.1.2. Intervention implementation

Each intervention was oriented around strengthening leadership, workforce development, resources, partners, networks and intelligence through intensive training and support for each intervention community. The system intervention was carried out with community stakeholders who had authority or control over the environments in which children were exposed to the identified system drivers risk factors. For WHSTOPS, the research team delivered the GMB workshops and were actively involved in planning implementation. In contrast, for RESPOND, the research team trained local community and health staff to deliver this process, plus a new and existing coalition of community leaders was convened to lead community-wide structural change ( 21 , 23 , 28–30 ). Both studies formed a steering group to prioritise changing systems to support physical activity, healthier food choices and childhood obesity prevention across the intervention design process.

3.2.1.3. Intervention evaluation

Both studies used a stepped-wedged randomised control trial design (SW RCT) to minimise practical and ethical issues associated with complex, population-level interventions ( 25 , 28–30 ). Stepped-wedged randomised control trial is one of the recommended study designs for evaluating complex interventions that involve whole-community policy/service changes that require political, logistic, and ethical consideration ( 31 ). Moreover, the WHOSTOPS evaluation approach included continuous outcome measurement (vs. measuring outcomes at certain endpoints). This showed recognition of the dynamic nature of implemented interventions, and continuous data collection made investigation of how system changes occurred possible’.

3.2.2. Lifestyle innovations based youth’s knowledge and experience (the LIKE programme)

LIKE was a 5-year study set in three districts in Amsterdam, with an intended overrepresentation of lower socio-economic and ethnic minority groups ( 22 ). It aimed to build a dynamic action programme based on the current system. It evaluated (1) how the system evolved in response to the developed programme and (2) how it contributed to improvements in health-related behaviours and prevalence of overweight and obesity amongst children aged 10 to 14 years old.

3.2.2.1. Intervention development

The LIKE programme was started by understanding the pre-existing systems that contribute to determinants of dietary, physical activity, sleep, and screen-based sedentary behaviours in the target population ( 22 , 26 , 27 ). Findings related to these determinants were summarised in a systems map built using GMB. This map was used as a reference for developing actions and as a basis for evaluation. They used Social Network Analysis (SNA) to identify the influential actors who hold a central position within the local governance and/or at community level and invited them to develop actions through the use of GMB workshops ( 22 , 26 , 27 ).

3.2.2.2. Intervention delivery and evaluation

The evaluation used developmental systems approaches, supplemented with routinely collected data on weight status and key health behavioural indicators ( 22 , 26 , 27 ). A key stated aspect of this approach was using the understanding gleaned in the systems maps to support adaptation, ongoing programme development, and feedback on broad systems change as the intervention programme was implemented. In other words, the intervention was being developed, implemented, monitored and re-developed in a continuous, adaptive process ( 22 , 26 , 27 ).

3.3. What is the available empirical evidence on the effectiveness of this intervention approach?

Only WHOSTOPS paper ( 25 ) reported the effectiveness of using a comprehensive systems approach to obesity prevention. No effectiveness findings had been reported for other included interventions at the time of writing.

WHOSTOPS was evaluated using a SW-RCT design over 4 years and reported a significant decline in mean BMI z score in the intervention group within the first 2 years followed by an increase. The mean BMI z score amongst the control group remained unchanged throughout the study period ( 25 ). A similar ‘U shape’ pattern of change was observed for the percentage of overweight/obesity in the intervention group, whilst the corresponding figure for the control group remained stable. There was an intervention by time interaction in BMI z scores ( p = 0·031). The authors suggested several contextual explanations for such findings. First, as planned, the research team reduced their implementation support to step-one communities in the second year to focus more on recruiting communities for step two. Due to bushfires and other natural disasters, control communities had to delay intervention uptake for 2 years. The resources allocated to the first set of intervention communities was reduced by at least half of what was planned for the last 2 years of the study. Second, there might be an unintended consequence (e.g., complacency, a feeling of the job being done and shifting priorities) of seeing early signs of a positive outcome in the intervention communities. The study did not achieve the desired sample size of 1,500 in each trial arm and was underpowered to detect hypothesised BMI z score change ( 25 ).

3.4. Were there any adaptations incorporated into the systems approach to suit different research settings?

No adaptions were reported for the included programmes. The WHOSTOPS, RESPOND and LIKE ( 21–23 ) were each developed using GMB. In each case, these methods were underpinned by previously developed scripts to design and run these sessions. The scripts themselves provide scope for the design team to adapt the framing of the question, the scale of the target area and the systems requiring attention.

3.5. What were the main features shared by studies that have made a comprehensive application of a systems approach to obesity prevention?

The main features shared by all three included studies ( 21–23 ) are described below.

3.5.1. Mapping the systems of obesity drivers and embedding actions within the systems

The WHOSTOPS, RESPOND and LIKE ( 21–23 ) used a systems lens to understand the various system levels and interventions required for sustainable, large-scale changes. GMB workshops as a systems dynamic tool were used in all studies to create a system map that recognises nonlinear and dynamic interactions between variables operating across different levels or subsystems within the target population’s environment. All programmes (1) started with understanding current systems and contexts within the communities; (2) identified, prioritised, and acted on systemic drivers of obesity; and (3) identified ways in which current systems and resources can be re-oriented or used for better health outcomes. All three studies used the Systems Thinking for Community Knowledge Exchange (STICKE) software to support the process. STICKE was initially developed to support WHOSTOPS ( 32 ) and subsequently is continually adapted to meet the needs of the communities in terms of increasing understanding and aligning with their existing planning and reporting requirements ( 33 ).

3.5.2. Measuring ongoing changes not just the endpoint outcomes

All studies ( 21–23 ) demonstrated systems thinking throughout the development, implementation, and evaluation stages of their intervention’s life cycle. Most notably, at the evaluation stage, all studies included evaluation and tracking of changes in the systems ( 34 ). Such an evaluation and monitoring approach is necessary given the dynamic and adaptive nature of any system. For example, within the WHOSTOPS study ( 21 ), ongoing data collection and updates of the systems map helped to optimise implementation and facilitate diffusion of the selected actions; new ideas were stimulated in an adaptive, constructive, capacity-building cycle. In depth interviews with community practitioners demonstrated how data helped frame the priorities of community prevention efforts to child health behaviours and the continual mapping process helped leaders to identify and track junk food, physical inactivity and moves from programmatic approaches as key areas of focus ( 28 ).

3.5.3. Measuring intervention processes

All studies undertook a process evaluation to understand how successfully the systems approach created a sustainable programme and how communities responded to systems interventions. Just as with ongoing outcome measurements, process evaluation can also inform adaptive/new actions to optimise intervention outcomes. Both the knowledge about and interventions on the systems are advanced continuously. However, no authors reported whether or how process evaluation contributed to learning how the systems worked.

3.5.4. Local decision-makers and influential actors lead and own intervention development and implementation

A common feature across studies ( 21–23 ) was that researchers in these studies supported local decision-makers and influential actors to develop and implement systemic interventions for transformative systems change through a co-creation, participatory approach. Those individuals were leaders from local government and other key sectors/subsystems of the communities ( 21–23 ). They have the authority, power, and/or resources to approve and/or implement prioritised interventions. In the WHOSTOPS and RESPOND studies, community leaders who directly affected pre-adolescent environments were invited to develop and implement interventions ( 21 , 23 ). Social Network Analysis was used in LIKE to identify influential actors who were then invited to participate in all parts of the project ( 22 ).

3.5.5. Supporting capacity building as an essential goal alongside achieving clinical effectiveness

All included studies have explicitly spent effort to strengthen the World Health Organisation (WHO) system building blocks ( 35 , 37 ), including leadership, resources, partnership and intelligence in community settings. For example, the WHOSTOPS study convened a new and existing coalition of community leaders who have the capacity and network to lead systems change across the community. The strength and structure of this network and influence on action is reported in relation to the initial system map developed by the community ( 29 ). Moreover, the RESPOND study trained local community leaders to run GMB workshops. One result of this capacity building is the use of techniques in these communities for problems outside the initial intent to address to childhood obesity ( 21 , 23 ). For example, several RESPOND communities used GMB and systems methods to understand and plan responses to food insecurity arising from the COVID-19 pandemic ( 30 ). Furthermore, the LIKE study invited adolescents to a capacity building workshop to teach them how to conduct research amongst their peers about healthy behaviours and potential actions towards stimulating healthy behaviours.

3.6. What are the reported facilitators and barriers to applying a systems approach to obesity prevention identified by the included studies?

Only one article ( 24 ) reported barriers and enablers. This article is a process evaluation of a pilot community that participated in the WHOSTOPS ( 21 ) programme in Victoria, Australia’s Great South Coast region.

The GMB workshops and ‘the organic evolution’ of the programme in all areas and levels of the system were reported by the steering and community task team members to be helpful. This approach established community ownership of the system by engaging a diverse range of community members who collectively unpacked the complexity of obesity and its main influences ( 24 ). Furthermore, co-creation teamwork, including sharing information within the steering group, engaging local agencies, and commitment of authorities to integrated working, has been identified to positively impact the programme’s feeling of ownership, development, and progression ( 24 ).

Focusing on community assets rather than needs or lacks was helpful in information sharing between members, engaging relevant organisations, forming a relationship with a topic expert, and attaining the commitment of many local authorities to participate in the collaboration ( 24 ). This can be accomplished by shifting mindsets from deficits to capabilities, highlighting and connecting a varied range of community assets and mobilising the connected assets for action ( 38 ).

Triggers to personal involvement in the programme and perceived prompts for others to participate have been identified as important facilitators of engagement in the process. For instance, the use of GMB has been found as a powerful tool to promote a shared understanding of the complexities of obesity in the local context and the need for collective actions ( 24 ).

Some of the identified barriers are miscommunication and confusion observed within the steering group organisation regarding individual responsibilities and roles. As a result, thought processes amongst members of the steering groups were not always aligned. Furthermore, a lack of support to those working at a lower level was identified within the steering group ( 24 ). Another barrier is related to the lack of application of the asset-based community development (ABCD) approach that promotes ownership and sustainability and could have been more effective if it occurred in conjunction with the GMB workshop ( 24 ).

The standard processes of GMB workshops were not adapted to support community members who had low health literacy, and no additional efforts were undertaken ( 24 ). This may negatively affect the efficiency of the task teams. Another identified barrier is related to unforeseen social and economic shocks. For WHOSTOPS, the bushfire impacted the subsequent delivery of intervention ( 25 ), which will be even more marked when we understand the impact of COVID.

3.7. Quality assessment

The quality of two papers ( 24 , 25 ) was assessed by an appropriate tool based on their study designs. We only assessed these two papers since these reported interventions outcomes. The WHOSTOPS met 14 of 17 of the reporting quality items of the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) extension for the stepped wedge cluster randomised trial (SW-CRT; see in Supplementary material 3 ). The process evaluation study ( 24 ) was assessed using the SCAS-EPPI ( 20 ). The reliability of the included process evaluation findings was rated as a medium, whilst the usefulness of the findings was rated as high (see in Supplementary material 4 ).

4. Discussion

This review included 10 publications ( 21–30 ) reporting on three eligible studies ( 21–23 ). This number suggests that comprehensive application of a systems approach to obesity prevention is limited. Although there is positive evidence, more empirical evidence is needed to understand the application and effectiveness of this approach. Furthermore, no empirical evidence is available from non-western, developing settings.

The scarcity of studies using a comprehensive systems approach may partly be due to the uncertainty around the exact meaning of ‘a systems approach’. Some programmes appeared to implement multi-level, multi-component interventions, or did not meet our inclusion criteria for intervention development ( Supplementary material 2 ). Moreover, sub-optimal reporting might have also explained the small number of studies meeting our inclusion criteria. The 2019 systematic review also found that the reporting of most included studies lacked sufficient detail ( 12 ). Similarly, authors of the recent review on different methods used to evaluate various public health interventions also suggested that more consideration could be given on how to present findings from complex systems evaluation ( 36 ). Therefore, robust and well-reported evidence is needed to improve our understanding of how a systems approach can be applied practically. To address this issue, we developed a practical guidance for reporting health interventions underpinned by a systems approach ( 39 ). This guidance is presented in a format of practical questions to assist academic authors, journal editors and other interested stakeholders to design, report or review future interventions that apply a systems approach to tackle obesity or other public health challenges. These questions were developed based on our empirical experience of applying a systems approach to health promotion across 16 countries, and comparative reflections on what were reported by studies included in this review and what were not reported by excluded but potentially eligible studies (those that were excluded due to insufficient reporting). The guiding questions are organised by the three interrelated stages of an intervention’s life cycle: ‘development’ (10 guiding questions), ‘implementation/delivery’ (10 guiding questions) and ‘evaluation/monitoring’ (12 guiding questions).

Our review only found one article that reported on the effectiveness of the WHOSTOPS programme. Therefore, published evidence on the impact of taking a comprehensive approach to obesity prevention is still limited. However, we are aware of several ongoing studies that will publish their evaluation outcomes within the next few years. Overall, WHOSTOPS was found to positively impact health-related quality of life, take-away consumption and water consumption amongst girls, and packaged snacks amongst boys ( 25 ). However, a ‘U shaped’ pattern was observed for changes in mean BMI z-scores and overweight/obesity percentages amongst the intervention communities, whilst these two outcomes remained largely unchanged amongst the comparison communities throughout the study period. A valuable finding from this study was the suggested explanation (explained in section 3.4) for such findings by the programme’s/study’s researchers. Furthermore, the length of an intervention might be critical in determining measured intervention outcomes. A systematic review of 26 obesity prevention studies focused on the same age group (7–12 years) as WHOSTOPS found that interventions lasting 12 months or less were most effective in preventing obesity ( 40 ). Future research should pay attention to potential interactions between intervention length and impact.

Our review did not limit searches to English-language publications only but all included studies ( 21–23 ) were based in western, high-income countries (Australia and the Netherlands). Although it is possible that eligible research that is not archived by international databases might have been missed, we believe this is unlikely given the origin and early stage of applying systems approaches to obesity interventions. This finding raises an important question about the feasibility of applying a systems approach in non-western and/or developing countries. One challenge might be realising cross-boundary collaboration amongst authorities and organisations to tackle health issues. For example, a study conducted in a Middle East country found that collaboration amongst diverse stakeholders is limited due to cultural and gender barriers ( 41 ). Moreover, many non-western countries adopted a highly centralised governing model in which the central authority has more strict control over local authorities. This could be a particular challenge when implementing a systems approach to public health intervention development and implementation as this approach is bottom-up and collaborative. Moreover, a centralised government can disempower local councils and not view health promotion or disease prevention activities as politically favourable ( 42 , 43 ). These challenges imply that the feasibility of using the systems approach in non-western countries should be a focus of future research.

Our review identified common features shared by studies that were considered to have comprehensively applied a systems approach to obesity prevention. Similarly, the 2019 review ( 12 ) and the NICE review ( 8 ) found that building relationships and community capacity was required to create successful outcomes.

Our review identified only one process evaluation ( 24 ) of an included intervention. This makes it challenging to provide a comprehensive summary of reported barriers and facilitators to applying a systems approach to obesity prevention. However, the identified barriers and facilitators can improve the design and delivery of future obesity interventions that take a comprehensive systems approach. For example, focusing on community assets will create a complete picture of shared motivations for change. This increases the possibility that change efforts will receive widespread support and success ( 38 ). Moreover, a strong reciprocal relationship was identified between systems thinking, collective impact and asset-based community development. Using these concepts seems to prevent an intervention programme (at least in the short term) from reverting back to business as usual ( 24 , 44–46 ).

This is the first review to identify and assess published evidence of a systems approach to obesity prevention using strict inclusion criteria to encompass all stages of an intervention’s life cycle. This is the main strength of our review since previous reviews applied broader inclusion criteria. A wide range of data sources, outcomes and process evaluation were included to capture all available evidence. Moreover, common features of comprehensive use of a systems approach to obesity prevention and application facilitators and barriers were identified.

The review also has limitations. First, there are two sides to applying strict inclusion criteria in this review. Although strict inclusion criteria allowed us to identify and synthesise evidence from studies that applied a systems approach at all stages of the intervention life cycle, some valuable knowledge generated by studies that only met our inclusion criteria partially was not captured by this review. Second, our definition of comprehensive use of a systems approach to obesity prevention was determined based on the current academic knowledge and our empirical experience. Our definition and review may be updated accordingly as the practical application of a systems approach to obesity prevention, and other public health challenges are advanced. Moreover, it is possible that some studies/programmes might have made comprehensive use of a systems approach but were excluded from this review for lacking methodological and process details in associated publications. This might mean that findings on other eligible studies/programmes were not considered in this review. There is an urgent need to develop practical guidance for reporting public health interventions underpinned by a systems approach to advance evidence synthesis and methodological development. Furthermore, we identified evidence for the effectiveness of this approach on behavioural outcomes and quality of life. However, this was based on one included study. More research is needed to understand better the impact of adopting a comprehensive systems approach to obesity prevention. Researchers and authors should also report major changes in the intervention environment and reflect on how such changes might have influenced intervention outcomes at different times. Non-western researchers are encouraged to test the approach in their settings and report any culturally relevant adaptations made to existing processes and tools.

5. Conclusion

Our review identified only three studies considered to have made a comprehensive application of a systems approach to obesity prevention intervention. This might be due to a misunderstanding of this approach or insufficient reporting of key processes and methods. Currently, no published empirical evidence is available from outside western, high-income settings. The evidence for the effectiveness of this approach on behavioural outcomes and quality of life was identified based on one included study. However, given this extremely limited evidence base, no conclusion on the effectiveness of this approach can be drawn yet. This review also identified common features shared by included studies, which may help clarify existing confusions around the meaning and practical application of a systems approach to obesity prevention. Finally, some barriers and facilitators to applying a comprehensive systems approach in practice were identified, and they would help improve the design and implementation of future work.

Data availability statement

Author contributions.

BL conceived the study idea and led the development of the study design. CF provided methodological advice and supervised the study with BL. MA conducted the literature search, screening/selection of papers, and data extraction and analysis. SA provided training and theoretical and methodological advice. BS provided theoretical expertise. RP worked as a second reviewer during the screening and selection of papers. Any disagreements between MA and RP over the eligibility of specific studies, the data extraction process and the quality assessment process were resolved by discussion with BL. BL, MA, SA, BS, RP, and CF contributed to the interpretation of the review findings. MA drafted the manuscript, which was revised substantially by BL, CF, and SA. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This paper was an output from the SYSTAM CHINA SEACS project funded by the UK Medical Research Council (grant number: MR/V004174/1).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Supplementary material

The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1015492/full#supplementary-material