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International Marketing Review

ISSN : 0265-1335

Article publication date: 30 August 2019

Issue publication date: 12 February 2021

Despite the growing interest by scholars, practitioners and public policymakers, there are still divergent and fragmented conceptualizations of nation branding as the field is still developing. In response, the purpose of this paper is to review and synthesize nation branding research and to provide directions for future research.

Design/methodology/approach

The authors review peer-reviewed theoretical and empirical journal articles published during the last two decades – from 1998 to 2018. Selected journal articles on nation branding were subsequently synthesized for further insights.

The field of nation branding is fragmented and has developed in the course of the last two decades in different directions. This paper identifies key publication outlets and articles, major theoretical and methodological approaches and primary variables of interest that exist in the nation branding literature. The findings also highlight several research themes for future research.

Originality/value

This research fills a need to summaries the current state of the nation branding literature and identifies research issues that need to be addressed in the future.

• Country image
• Nation branding
• Literature review
• Nation brand personality

Hao, A.W. , Paul, J. , Trott, S. , Guo, C. and Wu, H.-H. (2021), "Two decades of research on nation branding: a review and future research agenda", International Marketing Review , Vol. 38 No. 1, pp. 46-69. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMR-01-2019-0028

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Conceptualizing nation branding: the systematic literature review

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Introduction

Branding is no longer restricted to the realm of products; instead, because of globalization, it has extended to the domain of places, including nations, regions, provinces, cities and towns (Roozen et al. , 2017). Nation branding has become the preferred strategic communication framework for targeting foreign publics (Merkelsen and Rasmussen, 2016). Nation branding aims to endow the nation with specific qualities in the minds of the target audiences, so they can identify it with those qualities (Sasikumar, 2017). Today, countries and multinational firms attempt to develop and apply nation branding strategies and promote a positive image to gain a competitive advantage (Sun and Paswan, 2011). Governments use branding techniques to differentiate their nation on the global stage to achieve global competitiveness (Lee, 2011; Merkelsen and Rasmussen, 2016; Sasikumar, 2017; Silvanto and Ryan, 2014) and establish a competitive edge against rival nations in the belief that a strong nation brand can contribute to the nation’s sustainable development (Fetscherin, 2010; Frig and Sorsa, 2020).

While nation branding has gained so much popularity among researchers, there are still divergent and fragmented conceptualizations of the construct. Previous researchers have failed to provide an integrated model of nation branding derived from the past literature. The study of nation branding needs to interact with the relevant theoretical context and adapt them to build its collective knowledge. An integrative approach to developing nation branding theory must be reflected in building effective nation branding models (Lee, 2011). Although Anholt (2006) conceptualized nation branding by introducing six dimensions for this concept, he did not discuss its antecedents, consequences and moderators. Thus, this study aims to address this gap in this literature by proposing an integrated model of nation branding. Additionally, this field is still developing and lacks a generally accepted definition of the nation branding concept (Hao et al. , 2021). The lack of a standard definition of nation branding is probably because of the complexity of this concept and its confusion with others, such as destination branding, place branding and country branding (Rojas-Méndez, 2013). According to Fan (2006), the terms such as nation and country branding are used interchangeably (Bigi et al. , 2011; Stokburger-Sauer, 2011), although they are different (Frig and Sorsa, 2020). As a result, the subtle differences between these...

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Unveiling the power of nation branding: exploring the impact of economic factors on global image perception.

1. Introduction

2. literature review, 3. theoretical framework of nation branding, 3.1. definition and components of nation branding.

• Cultural Heritage and Arts: A nation’s history, art, and cultural achievements contribute to its distinctiveness. Cultural heritage is a foundation for nation branding, fostering a sense of pride and creating a compelling narrative [ 5 ].
• Political Stability and Governance: The stability of a nation’s political landscape and the effectiveness of its governance contribute to its attractiveness. Countries that project political stability and effective governance tend to generate greater trust among potential investors and partners [ 40 ].
• Economic Prosperity: A robust economy with growth prospects and favorable business environments can enhance a nation’s brand. Economic prosperity signifies opportunities for trade, investment, and collaboration [ 42 ].
• Social and Environmental Initiatives: A nation’s commitment to social equity and environmental sustainability reflects its values and can resonate with global audiences. Initiatives that promote well-being and responsible stewardship contribute to a positive image [ 43 ].
• Innovation and Technology: Nations that embrace innovation and technological advancement can position themselves as leaders in various fields. These attributes foster perceptions of dynamism and forward-thinking [ 41 ].
• Tourism and Culinary Offerings: Tourism is pivotal in nation branding. Unique tourist attractions and culinary experiences create an alluring image [ 26 , 44 ].
• International Diplomacy and Relations: A nation’s interactions with other countries influence its brand. Positive diplomatic relations and collaborations can enhance a country’s image as a global player [ 40 , 45 ].

3.2. Nation Brand and Brand Value

3.3. socioeconomic impacts of nation branding, 3.3.1. human capital and nation branding, 3.3.2. fdi and nation branding, 3.3.3. export and nation branding, 3.3.4. tourism and nation branding, 4. model, data, and methodology, 4.1. model and data, 4.2. cross-sectional dependence test, 5. discussion and conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Dineri, E.; Bilginer Özsaatcı, F.G.; Kılıç, Y.; Çiğdem, Ş.; Sayar, G. Unveiling the Power of Nation Branding: Exploring the Impact of Economic Factors on Global Image Perception. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 6950. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166950

Dineri E, Bilginer Özsaatcı FG, Kılıç Y, Çiğdem Ş, Sayar G. Unveiling the Power of Nation Branding: Exploring the Impact of Economic Factors on Global Image Perception. Sustainability . 2024; 16(16):6950. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166950

Dineri, Eda, Fatma Gül Bilginer Özsaatcı, Yunus Kılıç, Şemsettin Çiğdem, and Gökçen Sayar. 2024. "Unveiling the Power of Nation Branding: Exploring the Impact of Economic Factors on Global Image Perception" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 6950. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166950

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• DOI: 10.1108/imr-01-2019-0028
• Corpus ID: 203255026

Two decades of research on nation branding: a review and future research agenda

• A. Hao , J. Paul , +2 authors Heng-Hui Wu
• Published in International Marketing… 21 August 2019
• Business, Political Science

153 Citations

Conceptualizing nation branding: the systematic literature review, consumer cosmopolitanism in international marketing research: a systematic review and future research agenda, twenty years of research in brand globalness/localness: a systematic literature review and future research agenda, a nation brand development framework: the stakeholders’ perspective, nation branding in the post-communist world: assessing the field of critical research, success drivers of co‐branding: a meta‐analysis, nation branding, in what context, country equity: an integrative review, conceptualization, and a proposed model, digital labour: a systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis, open innovation—an explorative study on value co-creation tools for nation branding and building a competitive identity, 76 references, nation branding for foreign direct investment: an integrative review and directions for research and strategy, understanding international branding: defining the domain and reviewing the literature., marketing research on mergers and acquisitions: a systematic review and future directions, gradual internationalization vs born-global/international new venture models, an examination of the status and evolution of country image research, re‐branding africa, international franchising: a literature review and research agenda, country image as a nation‐branding tool, nation branding and integrated marketing communications: an asean perspective, branding the nation: what is being branded, related papers.

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Nation branding as an emerging field – An institutionalist perspective

• Original Article
• Published: 27 July 2016
• Volume 12 , pages 99–109, ( 2016 )

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• Henrik Merkelsen 1 &
• Rasmus Kjærgaard Rasmussen 2  

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Nation branding is a remarkable phenomenon. In less than two decades, it has established itself as the preferred framework for interstate strategic communication and as an emerging academic field. The paper describes how this extraordinary expansion was possible by showing how nation branding presents itself as a theoretical possibility and a practical necessity. We propose that what made a travel possible from product branding via corporate branding to nation branding was the semantic flexibility of the brand concept. We argue that the brand concept is almost void of meaning and that this feature has been an indispensable requisite for establishing nation branding as a field of practice and as an academic field. Despite the indisputable academic productivity that is a result of the vagueness of the brand concept, we suggest that to reach a normal science-like situation in the field of nation branding a clarification and systematization of central concepts is needed.

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Merkelsen, H., Rasmussen, R.K. Nation branding as an emerging field – An institutionalist perspective. Place Brand Public Dipl 12 , 99–109 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-016-0018-6

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Two decades of research on nation branding: a review and future research agenda

Purpose-Despite the growing interest by scholars, practitioners and public policymakers, there are still divergent and fragmented conceptualizations of nation branding as the field is still developing. In response, the purpose of this paper is to review and synthesize nation branding research and to provide directions for future research. Design/methodology/approach-The authors review peer-reviewed theoretical and empirical journal articles published during the last two decades-from 1998 to 2018. Selected journal articles on nation branding were subsequently synthesized for further insights. Findings-The field of nation branding is fragmented and has developed in the course of the last two decades in different directions. This paper identifies key publication outlets and articles, major theoretical and methodological approaches and primary variables of interest that exist in the nation branding literature. The findings also highlight several research themes for future research. Originality/value-This research fills a need to summaries the current state of the nation branding literature and identifies research issues that need to be addressed in the future.

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Nadia Kaneva

This article discusses the growing body of research on nation branding, arguing for an expanded critical research agenda on this topic. It begins with an extensive overview of scholarly writing on nation branding, based on 186 sources across disciplines. The discussion organizes the sources in three categories, teasing out key themes within and across them. Second, the article proposes a reflexive conceptual map which identifies four types of research orientations across disciplines. Finally, some directions for future critical research on nation branding and its implications are outlined. The ultimate goal of this mapping exercise is to stimulate more work informed by critical theories on the global phenomenon of nation branding.

NATION BRANDING: TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY BRANDING DYNAMICS IMPACTING EMERGING ECONOMIES IN THE GLOBAL MARKETPLACE

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This study examines the extent to which nation branding antecedents can be leveraged to create a strong nation brand for emerging economies. The Anholt (2002) nation branding model was quantitatively applied to develop a hexagon of factors which can affect developing economies. The Republic of Zimbabwe was targeted for analysis due to its national brand challenges and the negative brand equity. Data for the study was collected using structured questionnaires. Structural equation modelling (SEM) using Amos Graphics was the main tool for analysis. Findings suggest that government regulatory framework is the single most important key nation brand element which influences emerging economies' brands today. This is followed by tourism, natural resources, sport and entertainment, diasporic citizenry, and religion. The study concluded that if these affordances are capitalised, nation branding for emerging economies can be greatly improved by 58%. The study recommends government and private sector stakeholders to take active roles in capitalising these affordances in order to achieve the nation brand equity.

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The Strategic Review for Southern Africa

Heather Thuynsma

In October 2016, the University of Pretoria, in association with Brand South Africa, hosted the first Nation Brand University Dialogue. For most participants, this was a rare opportunity to interrogate the need for a nation brand, assess the factors that shape it, examine the reciprocal effect between nation branding and the policy environment, and consider its potential limitations. From the ten presentations and extended panel discussion presented during the Dialogue, we chose to include five in this special focus because each reviewed a specific strategic aspect of nation branding.Branding as a concept is often restricted to the world of business and the marketing of products and services. But while promoting a nation's brand does rely on marketing tactics, the political scientists studying branding acknowledge that its purpose is far broader. From a strategic perspective, nation branding seeks to grow a positive predisposition towards a country's principles, policies and...

Somogy Varga

Ariane Petschow

“Today, the world is one market. The rapid advance of globalisation means that every country, every city and every region must compete with every other for its share of the world’s consumers, business and leisure visitors, investors, students, entrepreneurs, international sporting, commercial and cultural events, and for the attention and respect of the international media, of other governments, and the people of other countries.” (Anholt 2007, cited in Valaskivi 2013: 489) Simon Anholt might be somehow right with his claim that in a capitalist world competition is prevalent, and to get a piece of the pie countries, regions and cities must act and react. And because it is his business, Anholt, among other marketing professionals, is considering and promoting his concept of nation branding as the only possibility of action or reaction in this respect. But are these ‘one fits all’ campaigns really necessary and helpful in every case, or can they also harm a nation’s reputation? To answer this question, in the following, it will be discussed what nation branding is, which logics it follows, how it can be construed, and which factors could lead to a counterproductive campaign which is not beneficial or even damaging a nation’s reputation. Overall, it will be argued that the neoliberal orientation of nation branding is constructing a very risky or even dangerous one-sidedness which neglects demographic groups, democratic principles, and cultural potentials of a nation. In addition to this discussion, a polarizing example of unprofitable state or region branding will be analyzed. As will be illustrated later, the state branding campaign “MV tut gut” (MV is good for you) of the German federal state Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (MV) has been placing its main focus on tourism although the state is already a well-frequented holiday and recreation area. To reveal this properly, the use of the campaign’s overrepresented symbol “Strandkorb” (beach chair) and the abbreviation “MV”, and how these are hindering or diminishing the region’s potential, will be seized on.

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mark andrejevic

This article applies recent critiques of branding and marketing to a case study of the nation branding trend. We argue that critical approaches to brand “co-creation”—a reliance upon consumers to build and disseminate brand identity—help illuminate the ways in which nation branding serves as a technique of governance in the era of global capitalism. The article first considers the recent development of nation branding as a global phenomenon and then explores the details of one such campaign in post-socialist Slovenia. The case ...

Ovidiu I Moisescu

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Nation Branding Perspectives: Definition, Concepts, Theory

Nation branding has become a popular yet contested field of research and practice, attracting interest from a broad range of disciplines. Not everybody is convinced that nation branding is a good idea, or, indeed, possible. The different opinions are mostly due to people’s varying perspectives on the topic, but also depend on their deeper ontological beliefs and convictions.

Depending on their professional or academic background, scholars look at nation branding from a technical-pragmatic, a political-diplomacy, or a cultural-critical perspective.

Learn about:

• What nation branding is;
• Different perspectives on nation branding (economic/marketing, political, critical);
• How nation branding research is either critical or approving of the term;
• Who are the key authors: list of references.

What is nation branding?

“Concerned with a country’s whole image on the international stage, covering political, economic and cultural dimensions” (Fan, 2010, p. 98), national branding goes beyond the narrower purpose of country-of-origin or place brands to promote specific economic interests (Fan, 2010).

Fan further notes that, “as an emerging area of interest, nation branding is driven largely by practitioners and there is an urgent need for conceptual and theoretical development of the subject” (2010, p. 98).

Judging from Kaneva ’s (2011) extensive review of scholarly work attributed to nation branding, literature on the topic is far from homogenous but varies significantly, not least in the ways in which the very practice of nation branding is discussed.

Different perspectives on nation branding

Referring to 186 examined scholarly publications, Kaneva concludes that a broad distinction can be made between technical-economic, political and cultural-critical approaches, of which in terms of numbers the technical-economic is by far the most common in scholarly publications on the matter (Kaneva, 2011). The key characteristics of each of the three approaches are outlined as follows.

Economic, functionalist perspective

According to Kaneva (2011), branding practitioners and marketers dominate scholarly contributions that can be associated with the technical-economic approach . Taking a functionalist, instrumentalist stance, they perceive nation branding predominantly as a strategic tool to boost a country’s competitive advantage, seeking to inform – not question – the hegemony of the market.

Most definitions of nation branding and nation brands can be attributed to the technical-economic approach, as the explicit use of marketing language reveals. Dinnie (2008, p. 15), for instance, defines nation brands as “the unique, multi-dimensional blend of elements that provide the nation with culturally grounded differentiation and relevance for all of its target audiences.”

Nation branding: A means to build and maintain a country’s strategic advantage with the purpose of economic growth.

In the same light, nation branding is understood as the process of employing publicity and marketing to promote selected images of a geographical location (Gold & Ward, 1994).

Eventually, from a technical-economic view, the purpose of both nation brands and nation branding is to ensure a favorable reputation with the target audience ( Anholt , 2007; Bell, 2005; Dinnie, 2008). If done well, such a reputation not only shines on the country itself but also on its products and assets, making them appear preferable in the eyes of the consumers (Country Brand, 2008; Gnoth, 2002, see also Roper, 2010).

Perhaps the most telling description of nation branding from a technical-economic perspective comes from Simon Anholt, considered the most prolific author on the subject (Kaneva, 2011).

In his view, nation branding is really just a metaphor for how effectively countries compete with each other for favorable perception, be it with regard to exports, governance, tourism, investment and immigration, culture and heritage, or people (Anholt, 2007).

Like other authors sharing the technical-economic perspective on nation branding, Anholt puts the main emphasis in his definition on competition, that is, the economic imperative.

Political perspective

Scholars looking at nation branding from a political perspective see it as coordinated government efforts to manage a country’s image in order to promote tourism, investment and foreign relations (Volcic & Andrejevic, 2011). In this light, nation branding is seen as a powerful political tool, especially for small, peripheral nations eager to strengthen their economic position and to compete against the economic, financial or military clout of superpowers (Volcic & Andrejevic, 2011).

Nation branding: A powerful political tool to strengthen a country’s economic position and to compete against economic, financial or military clouts of superpowers.

Literature attributed to the political approach sees nation branding, at worst, as an augmented form of propaganda, or, at best, as an inoffensive way of building and managing reputation by promoting a country’s culture, history and geography, a “more progressive form of patriotism than its chauvinistic or antagonistic counterparts” (Aronczyk, 2009, p. 294).

Scholars pertaining to this political perspective on nation branding are critical about the emphasis on market positioning and competitiveness as outlined above, stressing that attempts to brand nations can be risky and even counter-productive in that it might create mistrust and prejudice efforts to win the hearts of others (MacDonald, 2011).

Volcic and Andrejevic (2011, p. 599) share those concerns, pointing out “in an era of capitalist globalisation,” branding and commercial competition can easily become “the continuation of warfare by other means.”

Increasingly close links between nation branding and public policy – through active encouragement, funding, management and control through government organisations (Kaneva, 2011), have led to a growing field of critical examinations of nation branding, understood as a form of governance via market imperatives (Volcic & Andrejevic, 2011). Kaneva identifies this cultural-critical perspective as the third pillar within nation branding research.

Cultural-critical perspective

Studies adopting a cultural-critical approach to the exploration of nation branding tend to focus on its implications for national identities, social power relations and agenda-setting (Kaneva, 2011). Following this approach, the very practice of marketing and branding is to be treated with caution, since marketing is not a value-free, neutral means of providing products or services to satisfy physical needs (Moufahim, Humphreys, Mitussis, & Fitchett, 2007).

Rather, through its use of specific symbols, ideological discourses and practices, branding actively shapes social relations, for example by granting material consumption a central role in people’s lives (Moufahim et al., 2007).

Cultural-critical researchers concerned with nation branding aim to explore how marketing and branding influence the social sphere and how those practices alter people’s perceptions of self and their national identity, linking the discursive dimension of nation branding to constructivist ideas of nationhood.

Nation branding: A compendium of discourses and practices aimed at reconstituting nationhood through marketing and branding paradigms.

They would argue, for example, that rather than drawing an adequate image of a places’ history, nature and traditions, nation brands are distorted versions to accommodate consumers’ tastes (Butler 1998, see also Knight, 2011) and that the potential consequences of promoting such a distorted or idealistic image of a nation or place could prove problematic in that it “generates and perpetuates a lie with which the residents must live; thereby robbing a culture of its authenticity” (Fesenmaier & MacKay, 1996, p. 37).

In this scenario, as Volcic and Andrejevic (2011) point out, the polity becomes the “brand community” and governments a country’s chief marketers, expected to align foreign and domestic policies with the nation brand.

Understood as “a compendium of discourses and practices aimed at reconstituting nationhood through marketing and branding paradigms” (Kaneva, 2011, p. 118), nation branding from a cultural-critical perspective reveals a certain way of thinking about the role of a nation and its people, whom it seeks to mobilise in the name of economic development (Volcic & Andrejevic, 2011). By doing so, it follows the logic of neo-liberal governance in that it combines the obligations of citizenship with the responsibilities and risks of the entrepreneur (Volcic & Andrejevic, 2011).

In sum , whereas scholars exploring nation branding from a cultural-critical perspective understand it as a way to reconstitute nations both by means of ideology and praxis (Kaneva, 2011), literature attributed to the political approach sees nation branding, at worst, as an augmented form of propaganda, or, at best, as an inoffensive way of building and managing reputation by promoting a country’s culture, history and geography (Aronczyk, 2009). Lastly, from a technical-economic perspective, nation branding is seen as a means to build and maintain a country’s strategic advantage with the purpose of economic growth.

Nation branding research: critical or approving

Yet, not every research approach or publication concerned with nation branding can be clearly associated with one of the three perspectives described by Kaneva (2011). As she concedes, a more nuanced distinction can be achieved by taking a closer look at the ontological convictions that form the basis of nation branding research, particularly whether it follows the essentialist or the constructionist paradigm, and to what extent the stance taken by the researcher is critical of the nation branding concept, or disapproving.

Judging from her thematic analysis, Kaneva (2011) observed that academic literature on nation branding seemed to either praise or argue against the concept, largely depending on the underlying ontological assumptions with regard to social power and national identity.

According to Kaneva , where essentialists see nationhood and national identity as a more or less fixed object to be discovered and represented, constructivist-oriented research assumes that national identities are continuously produced by various agents (Kaneva, 2011).

The second distinction in nation branding research is concerned with the extent to which researchers take the market imperative for granted (consensus), or see it as problematic, and thus point or do not point to questions of power struggle and individual agency (dissensus) (Kaneva, 2011).

Nation brands can be both a positive means to encourage responsible citizens (Anholt, 2007; Kaneva, 2011) and a tool for propaganda (Kaneva, 2011).

Moreover, while the majority of nation brands are not created out of the blue but based on existing culture and traditions (Dinnie, 2008), and thus to some extent justified, they nevertheless tend to be dominated by the market(ing) imperative, which warrants aforementioned concerns, such as the potential impact of national and place branding on individual agency.

“Not what is, but what people believe is…has behavioral consequences” (Connor, 1994, p. 75), which grants national brands an important role with regard to people’s perceptions.

Anholt, S. (2007). Competitive identity: The new brand management for nations, cities and regions. Houndsmills, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan.

Aronczyk, M. (2009). Branding the nation: Mediating space, value, and identity in the context of global culture. (PhD thesis), New York University, New York, NY.

Bell, C. (2005). Branding New Zealand: The national green-wash. British Review of New Zealand Studies , 15, 13-27.

Butler, R. (1998). Tartam mythology: The traditional tourist image of Scotland. In G. Ringer (Ed.), Destinations: Cultural landscape of tourism (pp. 121-139). London, UK: Routledge.

Connor, W. (1994). Ethnonationalism: The quest for understanding. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Dinnie, K. (2008). Nation branding: Concepts, issues, practice. Oxford, United Kingdom: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Fan, Y. (2010). Branding the nation: Towards a better understanding. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy , 6(2), 97-108.

Fesenmaier, D. , & MacKay, K. (1996). Deconstructing destination image construction. Tourism Review , 51(2), 10.1108/eb058222.

Future Brand (2008). Country Brand Index 2008.

Gnoth, J. (2002). Leveraging export brands through a tourism destination brand. Journal of Brand Management , 9(4/5), 262-280. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.bm.2540077

Gold, J.R. , & Ward, B. (Eds.). (1994). Place promotion: The use of publicity and marketing to sell towns and regions. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Kaneva, N. (2011). Nation branding: Toward an agenda of critical research. International Journal of Communication , 5, 117-141.

Knight, J.G. (2011). New Zealand’s ‘clean green’ image: Will GM plants damage it? Dunedin, New Zealand: Marketing Department, University of Otago.

MacDonald, C. (2011). Expression and Emotion: Cultural Diplomacy and Nation Branding in New Zealand. (Master thesis), Victoria University, Wellington. Link

Moufahim, M. , Humphreys, M. , Mitussis, D. , & Fitchett, J. (2007). Interpreting discourse: A critical discourse analysis of the marketing of an extreme right party. Journal of Marketing Management , 23(5), 537-558. doi: 10.1362/026725707X212829

Roper, J. (2010). CSR as issues management. Paper presented at the 60th Annual International Communication Association Conference, Singapore.

Volcic, Z. , & Andrejevic, M. (2011). Nation branding in the era of commercial nationalism. International Journal of Communication , 5, 598-618.

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