define experiment in earth science

Top 17 Earth Science Experiments

Earth science, the study of our planet and its manifold natural phenomena, offers a world of discovery for curious minds.

We have handpicked a selection of the top 17 Earth science experiments for you to try. Our selection, suitable for a variety of age groups, covers a broad range of topics such as soil analysis, weather patterns, seismic activity, and more.

These hands-on, educational activities will not only deepen your understanding of our dynamic planet but also nurture a keen interest in environmental stewardship.

Get ready to unlock the secrets of our remarkable planet and have a blast along the way!

Earth Science Experiments

1. underwater volcanic eruption.

This experiment highlights the connection between geological processes and the delicate balance of life in our oceans. So, get ready to explore the hidden depths of our planet and witness the powerful spectacle of an underwater volcanic eruption.

Learn more: Underwater Volcanic Eruption

2. Ocean Layers in a Jar

This captivating experiment allows you to recreate and explore the diverse layers of the ocean right in front of your eyes.

By layering different liquids of varying densities, you’ll witness the formation of distinct oceanic zones, such as the surface zone, the twilight zone, and the deep-sea zone. So, why should you try this experiment?

3. Layers of the Earth Experiment

The Layers of the Earth Using Clay experiment offers a unique opportunity to visualize and understand the composition of our planet.

By sculpting the different layers of the Earth, including the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core, you’ll gain a deeper understanding of their properties and interactions.

Learn more: Layers of the Earth Hands-on Experiment

4. Earthquake Epicenter Experiment

The Earthquake Epicenter Experiment offers a unique opportunity to understand the science of seismology and earthquake detection.

By simulating earthquake waves using simple materials, you’ll learn about the principles of wave propagation and how seismic waves travel through the Earth’s layers.

5. Orange Peel Plate Tectonic

The Orange Peel Plate Tectonic experiment offers a unique opportunity to visualize and understand the dynamics of plate tectonics.

By carefully removing the peel from an orange and observing how it fractures and moves, you’ll gain a deeper understanding of the forces that shape our Earth’s crust.

Learn more: Orange Peel Plate Tectonic

6. Erosion at the Beach Experiment

This hands-on experiment will show students how wave action can cause erosion at the beach.

Weather-Related Experiments

Have you ever wondered about the forces that shape our everyday weather patterns? These engaging experiments offer a unique opportunity to explore and understand various aspects of weather phenomena.

So, why should you try this section of the earth science experiment? Let’s discover the reasons together.

7. The Greenhouse Effect Experiment

The Greenhouse Effect Experiment offers a unique opportunity to comprehend the mechanisms that contribute to the warming of our planet.

By constructing a miniature greenhouse and observing how it traps heat, you’ll gain a deeper understanding of how greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, can impact Earth’s climate.

8. Water Cycle in a Bag

The Water Cycle in a Bag experiment offers a unique opportunity to witness the dynamic nature of the water cycle in action.

By creating a self-contained system within a bag, you’ll simulate the various stages of the water cycle, including evaporation, condensation, and precipitation.

Learn more: Water Cycle in A Bag

9. Create Your Own Cloud

Have you ever wondered how clouds form and what makes them float in the sky? This captivating experiment allows you to create your very own cloud right in the palm of your hand. So why should you try this experiment? Let’s discover the reasons together.

10. Rain in a Jar

The Rain in a Jar experiment offers a unique opportunity to learn about the process of rain formation. Through this hands-on activity, you’ll witness how water vapor condenses and transforms into droplets, ultimately leading to rainfall.

11. Instant Snow Experiment

This enchanting experiment allows you to experience the magic of snowfall right before your eyes. So, why should you try this experiment? Let’s uncover the reasons together.

12. Tornado in A Jar

The Tornado in a Jar experiment offers a unique opportunity to explore the science behind tornado formation.

By swirling water and observing the creation of a miniature tornado-like vortex, you’ll gain a deeper understanding of the atmospheric conditions and dynamics that give rise to these powerful storms.

Soil Experiments

Through a series of engaging and hands-on experiments, we will unravel the mysteries of soil composition.

Join us as we explore the intricate world of soil through experiments that will ignite your curiosity and deepen your understanding of the vital role soil plays in sustaining life.

13. Build a LEGO Soil Layers

Lego! Join us on this hands-on journey to understand the composition and characteristics of soil layers.

Grab your Lego bricks and let’s start building an amazing understanding of the Earth beneath us!

Learn more: Build a LEGO Soil Layer

14. Testing Soil Experiments

Understanding soil composition and its properties is crucial for agriculture, environmental studies, and even construction.

By conducting these experiments, you will learn how to analyze soil samples, measure pH levels, assess fertility, and determine the best conditions for plant growth.

Learn more: Testing Soil Layers

15. The Science of Erosion

Through these experiments, we will explore the factors that contribute to soil erosion and discover ways to prevent it. Join us on this scientific adventure as we study erosion rates, simulate erosion processes, and learn about the importance of soil conservation.

Learn more: The Science of Erosion

16. Making Groundwater

Through hands-on exploration, you will learn about permeability, porosity, and the essential role of groundwater in our ecosystems. So, grab your tools, roll up your sleeves, and join us in making groundwater as we unravel the fascinating underground world beneath our feet.

17. Make Your Own Water Filter

This hands-on experience will empower you to explore the principles of filtration, observe how different soil components and materials contribute to the purification process, and gain valuable insights into water treatment methods.

Similar Posts:

• 37 Water Science Experiments: Fun & Easy
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Experiment Definition in Science – What Is a Science Experiment?

In science, an experiment is simply a test of a hypothesis in the scientific method . It is a controlled examination of cause and effect. Here is a look at what a science experiment is (and is not), the key factors in an experiment, examples, and types of experiments.

Experiment Definition in Science

By definition, an experiment is a procedure that tests a hypothesis. A hypothesis, in turn, is a prediction of cause and effect or the predicted outcome of changing one factor of a situation. Both the hypothesis and experiment are components of the scientific method. The steps of the scientific method are:

• Make observations.
• Ask a question or identify a problem.
• State a hypothesis.
• Perform an experiment that tests the hypothesis.
• Based on the results of the experiment, either accept or reject the hypothesis.
• Draw conclusions and report the outcome of the experiment.

Key Parts of an Experiment

The two key parts of an experiment are the independent and dependent variables. The independent variable is the one factor that you control or change in an experiment. The dependent variable is the factor that you measure that responds to the independent variable. An experiment often includes other types of variables , but at its heart, it’s all about the relationship between the independent and dependent variable.

Examples of Experiments

Fertilizer and plant size.

For example, you think a certain fertilizer helps plants grow better. You’ve watched your plants grow and they seem to do better when they have the fertilizer compared to when they don’t. But, observations are only the beginning of science. So, you state a hypothesis: Adding fertilizer increases plant size. Note, you could have stated the hypothesis in different ways. Maybe you think the fertilizer increases plant mass or fruit production, for example. However you state the hypothesis, it includes both the independent and dependent variables. In this case, the independent variable is the presence or absence of fertilizer. The dependent variable is the response to the independent variable, which is the size of the plants.

Now that you have a hypothesis, the next step is designing an experiment that tests it. Experimental design is very important because the way you conduct an experiment influences its outcome. For example, if you use too small of an amount of fertilizer you may see no effect from the treatment. Or, if you dump an entire container of fertilizer on a plant you could kill it! So, recording the steps of the experiment help you judge the outcome of the experiment and aid others who come after you and examine your work. Other factors that might influence your results might include the species of plant and duration of the treatment. Record any conditions that might affect the outcome. Ideally, you want the only difference between your two groups of plants to be whether or not they receive fertilizer. Then, measure the height of the plants and see if there is a difference between the two groups.

Salt and Cookies

You don’t need a lab for an experiment. For example, consider a baking experiment. Let’s say you like the flavor of salt in your cookies, but you’re pretty sure the batch you made using extra salt fell a bit flat. If you double the amount of salt in a recipe, will it affect their size? Here, the independent variable is the amount of salt in the recipe and the dependent variable is cookie size.

Test this hypothesis with an experiment. Bake cookies using the normal recipe (your control group ) and bake some using twice the salt (the experimental group). Make sure it’s the exact same recipe. Bake the cookies at the same temperature and for the same time. Only change the amount of salt in the recipe. Then measure the height or diameter of the cookies and decide whether to accept or reject the hypothesis.

Examples of Things That Are Not Experiments

Based on the examples of experiments, you should see what is not an experiment:

• Making observations does not constitute an experiment. Initial observations often lead to an experiment, but are not a substitute for one.
• Making a model is not an experiment.
• Neither is making a poster.
• Just trying something to see what happens is not an experiment. You need a hypothesis or prediction about the outcome.
• Changing a lot of things at once isn’t an experiment. You only have one independent and one dependent variable. However, in an experiment, you might suspect the independent variable has an effect on a separate. So, you design a new experiment to test this.

Types of Experiments

There are three main types of experiments: controlled experiments, natural experiments, and field experiments,

• Controlled experiment : A controlled experiment compares two groups of samples that differ only in independent variable. For example, a drug trial compares the effect of a group taking a placebo (control group) against those getting the drug (the treatment group). Experiments in a lab or home generally are controlled experiments
• Natural experiment : Another name for a natural experiment is a quasi-experiment. In this type of experiment, the researcher does not directly control the independent variable, plus there may be other variables at play. Here, the goal is establishing a correlation between the independent and dependent variable. For example, in the formation of new elements a scientist hypothesizes that a certain collision between particles creates a new atom. But, other outcomes may be possible. Or, perhaps only decay products are observed that indicate the element, and not the new atom itself. Many fields of science rely on natural experiments, since controlled experiments aren’t always possible.
• Field experiment : While a controlled experiments takes place in a lab or other controlled setting, a field experiment occurs in a natural setting. Some phenomena cannot be readily studied in a lab or else the setting exerts an influence that affects the results. So, a field experiment may have higher validity. However, since the setting is not controlled, it is also subject to external factors and potential contamination. For example, if you study whether a certain plumage color affects bird mate selection, a field experiment in a natural environment eliminates the stressors of an artificial environment. Yet, other factors that could be controlled in a lab may influence results. For example, nutrition and health are controlled in a lab, but not in the field.
• Bailey, R.A. (2008). Design of Comparative Experiments . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521683579.
• di Francia, G. Toraldo (1981). The Investigation of the Physical World . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29925-X.
• Hinkelmann, Klaus; Kempthorne, Oscar (2008). Design and Analysis of Experiments. Volume I: Introduction to Experimental Design (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-72756-9.
• Holland, Paul W. (December 1986). “Statistics and Causal Inference”.  Journal of the American Statistical Association . 81 (396): 945–960. doi: 10.2307/2289064
• Stohr-Hunt, Patricia (1996). “An Analysis of Frequency of Hands-on Experience and Science Achievement”. Journal of Research in Science Teaching . 33 (1): 101–109. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1098-2736(199601)33:1<101::AID-TEA6>3.0.CO;2-Z

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12 Awesome Earth Science Experiment Ideas For Classrooms or Projects

• January 22, 2024
• DIY Projects , Weather Education

24 Comments

Earth science can be a lot of fun…or it can be incredibly boring!

Unlike chemistry and physics, demonstrating earth science phenomena requires a little more creativity than heading over to a lab and simply replicating the concept.

However, that’s what makes it all the more fun!

Having taught earth science, I know how hard it can be to make it fun for your students. These are 11 of my favorite experiments to do with my students – all of them will have them curious and most importantly enjoying the moment and learning!

Table of Contents

Safety precautions, instructions:, how it works:, how it works, instructions.

First and foremost, the most important thing to keep in mind before doing any science experiment is SAFETY.

Be sure to wear protective goggles for your eyes, and protective gloves when necessary.

We’re not dealing with dangerous chemicals in any of these experiments but protective eyewear is an absolute must in any case.

If young children are doing these experiments, be sure to supervise them!

1) Cloud in a bottle( credit )

Making a cloud in a bottle is really fun and exciting! It happens nearly instantly, too.

Why this is a great experiment:  Cloud formation normally takes a long time – this experiment is a neat way for students to visualize this vital life-giving process. You’ll be able to see how water vapor condenses around aerosols to make a cloud.

What you need:

• A plastic soda bottle
• A pump with a rubber seal
• Rubbing alcohol

Fill about half a cm or so of water in the bottle and swirl it around so it wets the bottom sides of the bottle.

Light a match, put it out, and hold it in the bottle so some smoke goes in.

Seal the bottle with the pump, and start pumping air into the bottle.

As you increase the pressure by pumping more air, you’ll find that the seal may want to pop off. Hold it in!

After 5-10 pumps, you have created a decent amount of pressure. Pull the seal off the bottle, and you’ll get a beautiful cloud inside the bottle!

You can also do this using rubbing alcohol(don’t use a match in this case). Rubbing alcohol evaporates faster, and may give you a denser cloud.

When you increase the pressure, the water or alcohol vapor starts getting compressed and pushed together. When you release the pressure, the temperature inside the bottle drops slightly, allowing the vapor to expand and condense into a cloud.

A cloud is basically vapor condensed around dust/dirt particles in the air – by forcing the vapor to condense and providing something to condense around, we can make a cloud in a bottle!

2) Imploding can

This is one of my favorite experiments to do because it demonstrates the power of atmospheric pressure even though it is something we don’t feel every day.

Why this is a great experiment:  Students can have a hard time visualizing and understanding how the atmosphere has weight and exerts pressure, especially since they can’t feel it/see it/or touch it. The force and speed at which the can – or a drum – whatever you have on you is crushed demonstrates the awe-inspiring amount of atmospheric pressure and makes you  really appreciate how we are adapted to survive!

This experiment is fairly straightforward. You need:

• An empty soda can or water drum
• A pair of tongs to handle hot objects
• A bowl or bucket of ice water
• Optional: a stopper

Fill about 1 cm of water into the soda can, and hold it over the flame until the water starts boiling and steam starts coming out of the opening.

Let steam come out for half a minute to one minute.

Before the steam runs out, quickly place the can upside down in the ice water(so the opening goes into the water).

In one or two seconds, the can will get crushed.

If you’re using a larger drum, then you can stopper the drum after a minute or so, and start pouring the ice water on top of the drum.

The drum will also implode.

As the water boils, the steam will begin to push out any air inside the can, reducing the pressure inside the can compared to the outside. Once enough air has been pushed out, the pressure will be significantly lower. The can is still very hot, so the molecules are still very energized – which is creating some extra pressure on the inside.

3) Pulling apart two hemispheres

This is another awesome experiment to show how much pressure the atmosphere actually exerts. The principle behind it is  really simple, since it shows how every day suction cups work, too.

Why this is a great experiment: Otto von Geuricke, a German scientist, was the first person to do this experiment to demonstrate atmospheric pressure. He tried to use horses to pull the two hemispheres apart, but even they could not do it. Have your students/visitors try pulling apart the spheres!

• Two hemispheres(any rigid material such as plastic or metal) with mating, rubber-sealed rims so they fix into one another. (Find it on Amazon here )
• A vacuum cleaner or pump to suck out the air from in between
• Volunteers to try to pull the spheres apart!

Fix the two hemispheres together, then insert a vacuum hose or a pump into the hemispheres and proceed to suck the air out.

Once all the air has been evacuated, seal the inlet hole, and now ask your students to try and pull the hemispheres apart.

When there is air inside the hemispheres, the pressure inside and the pressure outside is the same, so there is no net pressure being exerted anywhere. It is easy to pull the hemispheres apart.

Once the air from the inside has been evacuated completely(or even partially), the pressure on the outside increases and is greater than the pressure on the inside, so the hemispheres are pushed together by the entire weight of the atmosphere!

When you try to pull the spheres apart, you’re going up against the collective pressure of the atmosphere.

Once you let air back into the spheres and the pressure equalizes, the two spheres will come apart easily. 4) Sedimentary rocks with bread( credit )

Sedimentary rocks are a huge part of earth’s geological processes – and rocks can get boring!

Why this is a great experiment:  To make things like rocks more appealing to students, this simple experiment can demonstrate how sedimentation works and how sedimentary rocks are formed.

Here’s what you’ll need:

• Slices of white bread(as many as you want, at least 2)
• Slices of brown bread(as many as you want, at least 2)
• Books (preferably heavy)

Lay a piece of wax paper on a surface.

Cut the crusts off your slices of bread, and begin stacking them alternately.

Once your slices have been stacked, measure their height, then place another piece of wax paper on top, and put as many books as you can balance. You want to try and create a lot of weight.

Leave it be for one week.

After one week, remove the books and measure the bread again. You will see that the bread has become a lot more compressed, and you can see the layers of white and brown bread in between.

This experiment demonstrates how sedimentary rocks form. Each year, millions and millions of tons of sediment are deposited on the ocean floor. As new sediment comes, the bottom sediment starts compressing due to the weight of the top layers, and water is squeezed out.

Over time, the sediments harden into rocks. If you break a sedimentary rock open, you would be able to see the individual layers to a great extent.

You can modify this experiment by changing the amount of weight you place on the slices and the time you place it for.

5) Acid rain ( credit )

Acid rain is a real problem thanks to CO2 emissions. It damages statues and buildings, and can even cause harm to crops.

Why this is a great experiment:  The striking results of the experiment will help demonstrate the gravity of the situation to students.

What you’ll need:

• Blackboard chalk
• (optional) a knife
• Measuring cup
• 4 plastic cups

To start, make sure that the chalk reacts with vinegar by putting a few drops of it on the chalk. You should see little bubbles form.

Number your four cups from 1 to 4.

In cup 1, mix one tsp vinegar with 1 cup of water.

In cup 2, mix two tsp vinegar with 1 cup of water.

In cup 3, mix three tsp vinegar with 1 cup of water.

In cup 4, mix four tsp vinegar with 1 cup of water.

Place your four pieces of chalk(carve them up into any shape if you wish) into four plates, and number the plates, too.

Put 10 drops from cup 1 onto the first piece of chalk.

Put 10 drops from cup 2 onto the second piece of chalk.

Put 10 drops from cup 3 onto the third piece of chalk.

Put 10 drops from cup 4 onto the fourth piece of chalk.

Put some of the vinegar solution on the chalk twice a day for 5 days.

At the end of 5 days, observe how the chalk has changed.

Chalk is made from calcite, which reacts with acids. In the reaction the chalk is also eaten away. Over a long period of continued acid rain, monuments made from marble(a form of calcite) and buildings made of limestone will be eaten away as the acid rain slowly dissolves them.

6) Why is the sky blue( credit )

The color of the sky is due to a phenomenon called refraction. Throughout the day, you’ll see the color of the sky change from orangeish-yellow to blue and back to orange-yellow. You can replicate this phenomenon in a glass!

Why this is a great experiment:  You can use this experiment to demonstrate how light is refracted through particles in a liquid(which behaves similar to how particles are refracted through particles in a solid).

Requirements:

• A bit of soap(liquid or bar, white is better)
• A flashlight that emits white light

Mix some soap into a glass of water until the water is white and milky.

Place the flashlight or bulb near the glass.

Find the proper angle: once you look at the glass correctly, you’ll see that the liquid looks blue.

You can attempt to create variations by adding more soap to the water, or holding the bulb(and observing) at different angles.

When light from the sun hits the atmosphere, it is scattered through a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering. The shorter wavelengths are scattered more, and blue/violet is scattered the most, which is why we perceive the sky as blue(not violet, because our eyes are more used to seeing blue than violet).

A similar process happens in colloids(liquids with solids in them). This process is called Tyndall Scattering.

7) Creating a spark of lightning( credit )

Lightning is static electricity: so the best way to demonstrate how lightning works is by generating and discharging some static electricity!

Why this is a great experiment:  Lightning is incredibly powerful: hundreds of thousands of volts. Static electricity(everyday shocks at least) are harmless, even though they’re essentially the same thing. This experiment is a great way to inspire awe for mother nature.

• A metal object(such as a spoon)

Inflate the balloon and rub it on your hair for two minutes.

Go into a dark room, and touch a spoon or metallic object to the balloon. You’ll see some sparks fly!

By rubbing the balloon on your hair or on a piece of wool, you’re charging it up. By touching the metal spoon to the balloon, the opposite charge from the metal jumps towards the charges on the balloon, and the energy is discharged as a spark and electric shock.

Inside clouds, lightning forms when colliding particles of ice create a giant charge in the bottom of the cloud. When the charge at the bottom of the cloud meets an opposite charge from the ground, the energy is discharged in a brilliant flash of light and electricity we know as lightning .

8) Percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere

We’ve all been taught that oxygen is about 20-21% of the atmosphere, but how can we actually measure this? Where did we come up with this number?

You can do a controlled experiment to see how much oxygen there is in the atmosphere.

Why this is a great experiment:  This experiment lets you visualize a fact that we’re taught from very early on, but perhaps did not give much thought to how we managed to measure such a number!

Required materials:

• A test tube
• A plastic container or box
• A hand warmer or some steel wool

Tape the hand warmer or steel wool to the bottom of the test tube.

Next, fill the container with water, and insert the test tube into the container upside down so the wool or hand warmer is at the top.

Measure the height from the current water level to the top of the test tube.

Over some time(it may take a few days), the water level will begin to rise. Once the water stops rising, measure the distance from the new water level to the top of the test tube.

You should find the difference is around 20%, or the percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere!

The steel wool/hand warmer reacts with oxygen in the test tube. As the oxygen is used up, water is pushed up the tube by air pressure on the outside to fill the vacant space up left by the oxygen.

This is a really neat experiment because it will also show air pressure at work, too!

9) Growing your own crystals ( credit )

Crystals are fascinating and an integral part of mineral formation in the earth’s crust. There are LOTS of ways to grow crystals(I’ll cite videos below) but this is one of my favorites and makes the biggest crystals!

Why this is a great experiment: What’s cooler than to be able to make your own gem-like crystals? Kids will really enjoy using these crystals as decoration and ornaments.

What you’re going to need:

• Alum(potassium ferricyanide), can sometimes be found in a grocery store in the spices section
• A saucer or petri dish
• Some taut string or fishing line

In the beaker, add alum slowly to 1/4 cup of very hot water and stir to dissolve. Keep adding alum until it no longer dissolves. This means the solution is saturated.

Pour some of this solution into your petri dish and let it sit overnight. Use a filter when pouring so no solids or impurities go through.

You should see small crystals growing in the dish by the next day. When they’re a little bigger, pour off the solution from the dish, and choose the best crystal(biggest) from it.

Tie the crystal with your fishing line, and tie the other end of the fishing line to the string. You’ll use the pencil to balance the crystal in a solution in the next step.

Make another alum solution using 1/2 cup of water , and pour it into a beaker or jar – use a filter again if necessary to leave out undissolved material.

Place your pencil-fishing-line-crystal into the solution – use the pencil to balance on the rim of the beaker, and the crystal should be suspended right in the middle of the solution. Make sure it’s not touching the side or bottom of the beaker.

Bear in mind: If you see that the crystal is getting smaller instead of bigger, then it means the solution is not saturated enough. Remove the crystal, heat the solution, and dissolve more alum.

Cover with a towel or piece of paper to keep dirt out, and watch your crystal grow over the next few days.

Remove it from the solution once you are happy with its size, and dry it off with a towel.

The crystallization process is called “nucleation”. Because the solution was saturated, as the solution cooled down, there was no longer enough space in the solution to keep the molecules dissolved, so they began to precipitate out. The molecules find one another and join up in a crystal pattern.

More and molecules join up until you see a crystal!

Even if there was no seed crystal, the molecules would eventually precipitate out, but the crystals would not be very visible because every molecule was trying to become a nucleus.

10) Convection currents

Convection currents are responsible for almost all atmospheric and water circulation.

Why this is a great experiment:  This simple experiment demonstrates how convection currents work, and also shows how air is a fluid. It’s a two in one!

• A large beaker
• A smaller beaker that fits in the large beaker
• A bit of plastic wrap
• A rubber band
• Food coloring of your choice

Fill the large beaker with cold water.

Fill the smaller beaker with hot water and add a few drops of food coloring, then mix well.

Cover the small beaker with plastic wrap and use the rubber band to seal it nice and tight.

Place the small beaker inside the large beaker, and using your knife, slit the plastic. One long slit should be enough.

The hot water will begin to rise and form convection currents.

Hot water(and air) will rise. As the water rises, it is exposed to the colder water, so it also cools down. The cooler water then begins to sink, forming a large circular motion of going up, moving to the side as it gets colder and hits colder water, and sinking again.

Atmospheric convection currents work in the same way.

Here is a variation:

11) Solar water purifier( credit )

This is a great survival skill and also highlights one of the most important processes for life on earth: evaporation of seawater.

Why this is a great experiment:  This is an excellent way for students to visualize how seawater evaporates – which leads to the ultimate formation of clouds. Plus it shows students how to distill water.

• Short glass or beaker
• Plastic wrap
• Masking tape
• A small weight such as a rock

Mix salt into two cups of water until it has dissolved, and pour the water-salt mixture into a large bowl.

Place the beaker in the middle of the bowl. The beaker should not come above the rim of the bowl, but it should be above the water level.

Cover the bowl with plastic wrap, and seal the bowl as best as you can from the side – you can use tape if you need to.

Place the light weight on the plastic right above the beaker.

Now place the bowl outside in the sun for a few hours – or the entire day. You can even experiment to see how much time it takes to get how much water – but you’ll need to make sure the weather conditions are similar every day to control your variables.

Once you check again, you’ll see that there is water in the beaker. Taste it to see if it is salty or sweet.

The water in the bowl was warmed by the sun, then it evaporated and became water vapor. The vapor rose up, hit the plastic, and condensed back into water droplets. The droplets followed the contour of the plastic created by the weight on top, and dripped into the glass.

12) Stalactites and Stalagmites( credit )

Stalactites and stalagmites are an essential natural process in the formation of caves. If caves are not easily accessible where you live, this experiment can help you make a “mini” cave right at home or in the classroom!

Why this is a great experiment:  While the principles in this experiment are very similar to those in the crystal growing experiment, this adds another factor of gravity!

• Epsom salts
• A bowl or pot
• String or paper towel
• Weight such as paper clips

Measure off one glass of water, pour it into the bowl, and start mixing in the epsom salts. You’ll need to mix in a LOT of salt and dissolve it to get this experiment to work, so you may find that heating the water as you mix makes it easier.

Divide the mixture between the two glasses.

Grab your piece of string, put a paperclip on both ends, and drop the ends in the glasses. The glasses should be close to one another, and there should be enough give in the string that it dips in the middle between the two glasses.

Over a few days, you should see your stalactites and stalagmites begin to form.

Capillary action causes the water to flow up the string on both sides.

At the dip in the string, the water begins to form a drop. As this water evaporates, the epsom salt you dissolved in it earlier will start to precipitate out and form deposits.

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What is Earth Science?

Earth science and its branches, lesson objectives.

• Define and describe Earth science as a general field with many branches.
• Identify the field of geology as a branch of Earth science dealing with the solid Earth.
• Describe oceanography as a branch of Earth science that has several subdivisions that deal with the various aspects of the ocean.
• Define meteorology as a branch of Earth science that deals with the atmosphere.
• Understand that astronomy is an extension of Earth science that examines other parts of the solar system and universe.
• List some of the other branches of Earth science, and how they relate to the study of the Earth.

Introduction

Earth science is made of many branches of knowledge concerning all aspects of the Earth system. The main branches are geology, meteorology, climatology, oceanography, and environmental science. Astronomy uses principles understood from Earth to learn about the solar system, galaxy, and universe.

Overview of Earth Science

Only recently have humans begun to understand the complexity of our planet Earth. We have only known for a few hundred years that Earth is just a tiny part of an enormous galaxy, which in turn is a tiny part of an even greater universe.

Earth science deals with any and all aspects of the Earth: its lands, interior, atmosphere, and oceans. In all its wonder, Earth scientists seek to understand the beautiful sphere on which we live, shown in Figure below .

Figure 1: Alhazen (965-ca.1039) as pictured on an Iraqi 10,000-dinar note

One of the first ideas regarding how human vision works came from the Greek philosopher Empedocles around 450 BCE . Empedocles reasoned that the Greek goddess Aphrodite had lit a fire in the human eye, and vision was possible because light rays from this fire emanated from the eye, illuminating objects around us. While a number of people challenged this proposal, the idea that light radiated from the human eye proved surprisingly persistent until around 1,000 CE , when a Middle Eastern scientist advanced our knowledge of the nature of light and, in so doing, developed a new and more rigorous approach to scientific research . Abū 'Alī al-Hasan ibn al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham, also known as Alhazen , was born in 965 CE in the Arabian city of Basra in what is present-day Iraq. He began his scientific studies in physics, mathematics, and other sciences after reading the works of several Greek philosophers. One of Alhazen's most significant contributions was a seven-volume work on optics titled Kitab al-Manazir (later translated to Latin as Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni – Alhazen's Book of Optics ). Beyond the contributions this book made to the field of optics, it was a remarkable work in that it based conclusions on experimental evidence rather than abstract reasoning – the first major publication to do so. Alhazen's contributions have proved so significant that his likeness was immortalized on the 2003 10,000-dinar note issued by Iraq (Figure 1).

Alhazen invested significant time studying light , color, shadows, rainbows, and other optical phenomena. Among this work was a study in which he stood in a darkened room with a small hole in one wall. Outside of the room, he hung two lanterns at different heights. Alhazen observed that the light from each lantern illuminated a different spot in the room, and each lighted spot formed a direct line with the hole and one of the lanterns outside the room. He also found that covering a lantern caused the spot it illuminated to darken, and exposing the lantern caused the spot to reappear. Thus, Alhazen provided some of the first experimental evidence that light does not emanate from the human eye but rather is emitted by certain objects (like lanterns) and travels from these objects in straight lines. Alhazen's experiment may seem simplistic today, but his methodology was groundbreaking: He developed a hypothesis based on observations of physical relationships (that light comes from objects), and then designed an experiment to test that hypothesis. Despite the simplicity of the method , Alhazen's experiment was a critical step in refuting the long-standing theory that light emanated from the human eye, and it was a major event in the development of modern scientific research methodology.

Science and the scientific method: Definitions and examples

Here's a look at the foundation of doing science — the scientific method.

The scientific method

Hypothesis, theory and law, a brief history of science, additional resources, bibliography.

Science is a systematic and logical approach to discovering how things in the universe work. It is also the body of knowledge accumulated through the discoveries about all the things in the universe. 

The word "science" is derived from the Latin word "scientia," which means knowledge based on demonstrable and reproducible data, according to the Merriam-Webster dictionary . True to this definition, science aims for measurable results through testing and analysis, a process known as the scientific method. Science is based on fact, not opinion or preferences. The process of science is designed to challenge ideas through research. One important aspect of the scientific process is that it focuses only on the natural world, according to the University of California, Berkeley . Anything that is considered supernatural, or beyond physical reality, does not fit into the definition of science.

When conducting research, scientists use the scientific method to collect measurable, empirical evidence in an experiment related to a hypothesis (often in the form of an if/then statement) that is designed to support or contradict a scientific theory .

"As a field biologist, my favorite part of the scientific method is being in the field collecting the data," Jaime Tanner, a professor of biology at Marlboro College, told Live Science. "But what really makes that fun is knowing that you are trying to answer an interesting question. So the first step in identifying questions and generating possible answers (hypotheses) is also very important and is a creative process. Then once you collect the data you analyze it to see if your hypothesis is supported or not."

The steps of the scientific method go something like this, according to Highline College :

• Make an observation or observations.
• Form a hypothesis — a tentative description of what's been observed, and make predictions based on that hypothesis.
• Test the hypothesis and predictions in an experiment that can be reproduced.
• Analyze the data and draw conclusions; accept or reject the hypothesis or modify the hypothesis if necessary.
• Reproduce the experiment until there are no discrepancies between observations and theory. "Replication of methods and results is my favorite step in the scientific method," Moshe Pritsker, a former post-doctoral researcher at Harvard Medical School and CEO of JoVE, told Live Science. "The reproducibility of published experiments is the foundation of science. No reproducibility — no science."

Some key underpinnings to the scientific method:

• The hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable, according to North Carolina State University . Falsifiable means that there must be a possible negative answer to the hypothesis.
• Research must involve deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning . Deductive reasoning is the process of using true premises to reach a logical true conclusion while inductive reasoning uses observations to infer an explanation for those observations.
• An experiment should include a dependent variable (which does not change) and an independent variable (which does change), according to the University of California, Santa Barbara .
• An experiment should include an experimental group and a control group. The control group is what the experimental group is compared against, according to Britannica .

The process of generating and testing a hypothesis forms the backbone of the scientific method. When an idea has been confirmed over many experiments, it can be called a scientific theory. While a theory provides an explanation for a phenomenon, a scientific law provides a description of a phenomenon, according to The University of Waikato . One example would be the law of conservation of energy, which is the first law of thermodynamics that says that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. 

A law describes an observed phenomenon, but it doesn't explain why the phenomenon exists or what causes it. "In science, laws are a starting place," said Peter Coppinger, an associate professor of biology and biomedical engineering at the Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology. "From there, scientists can then ask the questions, 'Why and how?'"

Laws are generally considered to be without exception, though some laws have been modified over time after further testing found discrepancies. For instance, Newton's laws of motion describe everything we've observed in the macroscopic world, but they break down at the subatomic level.

This does not mean theories are not meaningful. For a hypothesis to become a theory, scientists must conduct rigorous testing, typically across multiple disciplines by separate groups of scientists. Saying something is "just a theory" confuses the scientific definition of "theory" with the layperson's definition. To most people a theory is a hunch. In science, a theory is the framework for observations and facts, Tanner told Live Science.

The earliest evidence of science can be found as far back as records exist. Early tablets contain numerals and information about the solar system , which were derived by using careful observation, prediction and testing of those predictions. Science became decidedly more "scientific" over time, however.

1200s: Robert Grosseteste developed the framework for the proper methods of modern scientific experimentation, according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. His works included the principle that an inquiry must be based on measurable evidence that is confirmed through testing.

1400s: Leonardo da Vinci began his notebooks in pursuit of evidence that the human body is microcosmic. The artist, scientist and mathematician also gathered information about optics and hydrodynamics.

1500s: Nicolaus Copernicus advanced the understanding of the solar system with his discovery of heliocentrism. This is a model in which Earth and the other planets revolve around the sun, which is the center of the solar system.

1600s: Johannes Kepler built upon those observations with his laws of planetary motion. Galileo Galilei improved on a new invention, the telescope, and used it to study the sun and planets. The 1600s also saw advancements in the study of physics as Isaac Newton developed his laws of motion.

1700s: Benjamin Franklin discovered that lightning is electrical. He also contributed to the study of oceanography and meteorology. The understanding of chemistry also evolved during this century as Antoine Lavoisier, dubbed the father of modern chemistry , developed the law of conservation of mass.

1800s: Milestones included Alessandro Volta's discoveries regarding electrochemical series, which led to the invention of the battery. John Dalton also introduced atomic theory, which stated that all matter is composed of atoms that combine to form molecules. The basis of modern study of genetics advanced as Gregor Mendel unveiled his laws of inheritance. Later in the century, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovered X-rays , while George Ohm's law provided the basis for understanding how to harness electrical charges.

1900s: The discoveries of Albert Einstein , who is best known for his theory of relativity, dominated the beginning of the 20th century. Einstein's theory of relativity is actually two separate theories. His special theory of relativity, which he outlined in a 1905 paper, " The Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies ," concluded that time must change according to the speed of a moving object relative to the frame of reference of an observer. His second theory of general relativity, which he published as " The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity ," advanced the idea that matter causes space to curve.

In 1952, Jonas Salk developed the polio vaccine , which reduced the incidence of polio in the United States by nearly 90%, according to Britannica . The following year, James D. Watson and Francis Crick discovered the structure of DNA , which is a double helix formed by base pairs attached to a sugar-phosphate backbone, according to the National Human Genome Research Institute .

2000s: The 21st century saw the first draft of the human genome completed, leading to a greater understanding of DNA. This advanced the study of genetics, its role in human biology and its use as a predictor of diseases and other disorders, according to the National Human Genome Research Institute .

• This video from City University of New York delves into the basics of what defines science.
• Learn about what makes science science in this book excerpt from Washington State University .
• This resource from the University of Michigan — Flint explains how to design your own scientific study.

Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Scientia. 2022. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/scientia

University of California, Berkeley, "Understanding Science: An Overview." 2022. ​​ https://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/0_0_0/intro_01  

Highline College, "Scientific method." July 12, 2015. https://people.highline.edu/iglozman/classes/astronotes/scimeth.htm  

North Carolina State University, "Science Scripts." https://projects.ncsu.edu/project/bio183de/Black/science/science_scripts.html  

University of California, Santa Barbara. "What is an Independent variable?" October 31,2017. http://scienceline.ucsb.edu/getkey.php?key=6045  

Encyclopedia Britannica, "Control group." May 14, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/science/control-group  

The University of Waikato, "Scientific Hypothesis, Theories and Laws." https://sci.waikato.ac.nz/evolution/Theories.shtml  

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Robert Grosseteste. May 3, 2019. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/grosseteste/  

Encyclopedia Britannica, "Jonas Salk." October 21, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/ biography /Jonas-Salk

National Human Genome Research Institute, "​Phosphate Backbone." https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Phosphate-Backbone  

National Human Genome Research Institute, "What is the Human Genome Project?" https://www.genome.gov/human-genome-project/What  

‌ Live Science contributor Ashley Hamer updated this article on Jan. 16, 2022.

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Home » Geology Articles » What Is Earth Science?

What Is Earth Science?

Article by: hobart m. king , phd, rpg.

Earth Science is the study of Earth and its neighbors in space. The image above is the first full-hemisphere view of Earth captured in the 21st Century. It was acquired by NOAA's GOES-8 satellite on January 1, 2000 at 12:45 AM Eastern Standard Time. Image by the GOES project.

Introduction

Earth Science is the study of the Earth and its neighbors in space. It is an exciting science with many interesting and practical applications. Some Earth scientists use their knowledge of the Earth to locate and develop energy and mineral resources. Others study the impact of human activity on Earth's environment, and design methods to protect the planet. Some use their knowledge about Earth processes such as volcanoes, earthquakes, and hurricanes to plan communities that will not expose people to these dangerous events.

The Four Earth Sciences

Many different sciences are used to learn about the Earth; however, the four basic areas of Earth science study are: geology, meteorology, oceanography, and astronomy. A brief explanation of these sciences is provided below.

Mapping the inside of a volcano: Dr. Catherine Snelson, Assistant Professor of Geophysics at New Mexico Tech, sets off small explosions on the flank of Mount Erebus (a volcano in Antarctica). Vibrations from the explosions travel into the Earth and reflect off of structures below. Her instruments record the vibrations. She uses the data to prepare maps of the volcano's interior. Photo courtesy of Martin Reed, the National Science Foundation and the United States Antarctic Program . Learn more about what Dr. Snelson and others are doing to learn about Mount Erebus .

Geology: Science of the Earth

Geology is the primary Earth science. The word means "study of the Earth." Geology deals with the composition of Earth materials, Earth structures, and Earth processes. It is also concerned with the organisms of the planet and how the planet has changed over time. Geologists search for fuels and minerals, study natural hazards, and work to protect Earth's environment.

Mapping lava flows: Charlie Bacon, a USGS volcanologist, draws the boundaries of prehistoric lava flows from Mount Veniaminof, Alaska, onto a map. This map will show the areas covered by past lava eruptions and can be used to estimate the potential impact of future eruptions. Scientists in Alaska often carry firearms (foreground) and pepper spray as protection against grizzly bears. The backpack contains food and survival gear, and a two-way radio to call his helicopter pilot. Charlie's orange overalls help the pilot find him on pick-up day. Image by Charlie Bacon, USGS / Alaska Volcano Observatory.

Meteorology: Science of the Atmosphere

Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and how processes in the atmosphere determine Earth's weather and climate. Meteorology is a very practical science because everyone is concerned about the weather. How climate changes over time in response to the actions of people is a topic of urgent worldwide concern. The study of meteorology is of critical importance in protecting Earth's environment.

Hydrologic Cycle: Earth Science involves the study of systems such as the hydrologic cycle. This type of system can only be understood by using a knowledge of geology (groundwater), meteorology (weather and climate), oceanography (ocean systems) and astronomy (energy input from the sun). The hydrologic cycle is always in balance - inputs and withdrawals must be equal. Earth scientists would determine the impact of any human input or withdraw from the system. NOAA image created by Peter Corrigan.

Oceanography: Science of the Oceans

Oceanography is the study of Earth's oceans - their composition, movement, organisms and processes. The oceans cover most of our planet and are important resources for food and other commodities. They are increasingly being used as an energy source. The oceans also have a major influence on the weather, and changes in the oceans can drive or moderate climate change. Oceanographers work to develop the ocean as a resource and protect it from human impact. The goal is to utilize the oceans while minimizing the effects of our actions.

Astronomy: Science of the Universe

Astronomy is the study of the universe. Here are some examples of why studying space beyond Earth is important: the moon drives the ocean's tidal system, asteroid impacts have repeatedly devastated Earth's inhabitants, and energy from the sun drives our weather and climates. A knowledge of astronomy is essential to understanding the Earth. Astronomers can also use a knowledge of Earth materials, processes and history to understand other planets - even those outside of our own solar system.

The Importance of Earth Science

Today we live in a time when the Earth and its inhabitants face many challenges. Our climate is changing, and that change is being caused by human activity. Earth scientists recognized this problem and will play a key role in efforts to resolve it. We are also challenged to: develop new sources of energy that will have minimal impact on climate; locate new sources of metals and other mineral resources as known sources are depleted; and, determine how Earth's increasing population can live and avoid serious threats such as volcanic activity, earthquakes, landslides, floods and more. These are just a few of the problems where solutions depend upon a deep understanding of Earth science.

Earth Science Careers

If you are a pre-college student, you can start preparing for a career in Earth science by enrolling in the college preparation program and doing well in all of your courses. Science courses are especially important, but math, writing, and other disciplines are also used by Earth scientists during every working day.

Some universities have Earth Science programs but most offer more specific training in programs such as geology, meteorology, oceanography or astronomy. In these programs you will be required to take some challenging courses such as chemistry, physics, biology and math. Earth science is an integrated science, and professionals in that field must solve problems that require a knowledge of several fields of science.

If you already have a degree in another discipline such as biology, chemistry, geography, or physics, you might be able to go to graduate school and obtain a Master's degree in one of the Earth sciences. That will most likely require taking some undergraduate courses to meet program entry requirements. However, if you have a strong interest in Earth science it is probably worth doing.

At present, job opportunities in many areas of the Earth sciences are better than average. Opportunities in geology are especially good.

Visit the website of a school that offers a geology degree, get in touch with the geology department, let them know you are interested, and make arrangements to visit the campus. Don't be hesitant. Good schools and professors want to be contacted by interested students.

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The Exploding Volcano Experiment Would an earth science experiment list even be complete without an exploding volcano? If you have had a few dud volcanoes in your time, do not fear — see our extra tips section. What You Need 6 cups of flour 2 tablespoons of baking soda 4 tablespoons of cooking oil 2 cups of salt Dishwashing detergent Red food coloring Baking dish or pan Empty soda bottle How to Do the Experiment Start by making the volcano cone — mix the six cups of flour, 2 cups of salt, 4 tablespoons of cooking oil and 2 cups of warm water. Add more warm water if needed. The mixture must be firm and smooth. Now, take the soda bottle and place it on the baking tray. Mold the dough mixture around the bottle until it resembles a volcano. Be careful not to drop dough into the bottle or close the opening. Next, fill the bottle almost all the way with warm water and red food coloring. Add 6 drops of liquid detergent and 2 tablespoons of baking soda. Then, slowly add vinegar and enjoy the eruption. Two tips — the narrower the mouth of the bottle, the better the explosion, and don’t forget the detergent. Wider jars often have underwhelming explosions, and the dishwashing liquid adds to the show. 2. The Indoor Rainstorm Experiment What better way to demonstrate the workings of a rainstorm than with a little fun experiment? This experiment is easy and safe to do in a classroom, dining room or any indoor area. Clear glass or jar Shaving cream Blue food coloring Fill your glass/jar halfway with warm water. Add a generous amount of shaving cream and pack it in. Use your finger to make an indent in the middle of the cloud of shaving cream. Then, add 30 drops of blue coloring in the center of the shaving cream. Watch how the “rain” pours out the bottom of the cloud and witness your indoor rainstorm. 3. The Ocean Wave Experiment Wave boredom goodbye by showing your kids the ocean’s surface and deep currents. 2 clear bowls Warm and cold water Take one cup and fill it halfway with cold water. Add a teaspoon of salt and a few drops of blue food coloring and mix it up. Then, fill the other cup halfway with warm water, add a teaspoon of salt and some blue food coloring, and mix the solution. In the bowl, add a separate cup of cold water and mix it with 1 tablespoon of salt. Use the dropper to add the warm blue salt water from the cup. Observe what happens. In the other bowl, add a separate cup of warm water and mix in 1 tablespoon of salt. Now, use the dropper to add some of the cold blue salt water from the cup. Observe what happens. Here’s a sneak preview of what you should see: The warm water should rise, and the cold water should sink, demonstrating the ocean’s convection currents. 4. The Edible Rock Experiment You rarely get to eat your experiments! The edible rock experiment demonstrates sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Glass jar or cup (microwave safe) Chocolate chips Peanut butter chips White chocolate chips Plastic wrap Add a layer of 1/4 cup of chocolate chips, then 1/4 cup of peanut butter chips and 1/4 cup of white chocolate chips to the glass. Continue the three layers until the kids can see them clearly. Use your spoon to crush the layers, showing “sedimentary” rocks. To demonstrate metamorphic rocks: Cover the jars with plastic wrap and carefully melt them in the microwave. Melt the chips in 30-second intervals until all the layers have melted together. Show the kids, but don’t remove the “lava-hot” chocolate until the cup cools. Once the cup has cooled off, you can smoosh the chocolate, which should still be a little bit warm, with the spoon and show them the metamorphic rocks. Next is the experiment’s most critical part — enjoy a metamorphic treat! 5. The Indoor Snow Experiment Indoor snow is another fun, hands-on earth experiment for your kids. The best part is that no one will freeze their fingers off. Box of cornstarch Can of shaving cream Decorations for the “snowman” (optional) Add the box of cornstarch to the tray and spray the whole can of shaving cream over it. Mix them together, and then you can start playing with the snow. Try building a snowman and giving him a candy nose and face! Cultivate the Love of Science in Your Elementary Kids Science Explorers is passionate about igniting a love of science in kids ages 4 to 11. Our quality, inquiry-based science programs will help your kids get hands-on experience. Discover our  science summer camps  and  after school STEM clubs . Recent Posts How to Explore Science at the Playground Guide to Funding a School STEM Program Beach STEM Activities Guide to Sports Science for Children Recent Comments Scientific Method Example Illustration by J.R. Bee. ThoughtCo.  Cell Biology Weather & Climate B.A., Biology, Emory University A.S., Nursing, Chattahoochee Technical College The scientific method is a series of steps that scientific investigators follow to answer specific questions about the natural world. Scientists use the scientific method to make observations, formulate hypotheses , and conduct scientific experiments . A scientific inquiry starts with an observation. Then, the formulation of a question about what has been observed follows. Next, the scientist will proceed through the remaining steps of the scientific method to end at a conclusion. The six steps of the scientific method are as follows: Observation The first step of the scientific method involves making an observation about something that interests you. Taking an interest in your scientific discovery is important, for example, if you are doing a science project , because you will want to work on something that holds your attention. Your observation can be of anything from plant movement to animal behavior, as long as it is something you want to know more about.​ This step is when you will come up with an idea if you are working on a science project. Once you have made your observation, you must formulate a question about what you observed. Your question should summarize what it is you are trying to discover or accomplish in your experiment. When stating your question, be as specific as possible.​ For example, if you are doing a project on plants , you may want to know how plants interact with microbes. Your question could be: Do plant spices inhibit bacterial growth ? The hypothesis is a key component of the scientific process. A hypothesis is an idea that is suggested as an explanation for a natural event, a particular experience, or a specific condition that can be tested through definable experimentation. It states the purpose of your experiment, the variables used, and the predicted outcome of your experiment. It is important to note that a hypothesis must be testable. That means that you should be able to test your hypothesis through experimentation .​ Your hypothesis must either be supported or falsified by your experiment. An example of a good hypothesis is: If there is a relation between listening to music and heart rate, then listening to music will cause a person's resting heart rate to either increase or decrease. Once you have developed a hypothesis, you must design and conduct an experiment that will test it. You should develop a procedure that states clearly how you plan to conduct your experiment. It is important you include and identify a controlled variable or dependent variable in your procedure. Controls allow us to test a single variable in an experiment because they are unchanged. We can then make observations and comparisons between our controls and our independent variables (things that change in the experiment) to develop an accurate conclusion.​ The results are where you report what happened in the experiment. That includes detailing all observations and data made during your experiment. Most people find it easier to visualize the data by charting or graphing the information.​ Developing a conclusion is the final step of the scientific method. This is where you analyze the results from the experiment and reach a determination about the hypothesis. Did the experiment support or reject your hypothesis? If your hypothesis was supported, great. If not, repeat the experiment or think of ways to improve your procedure. Glycolysis Steps Biology Prefixes and Suffixes: chrom- or chromo- Biology Prefixes and Suffixes: proto- 6 Things You Should Know About Biological Evolution Biology Prefixes and Suffixes: Aer- or Aero- Taxonomy and Organism Classification Homeostasis Biology Prefixes and Suffixes: diplo- The Biology Suffix -lysis Biology Prefixes and Suffixes Index Biology Prefixes and Suffixes: tel- or telo- Parasitism: Definition and Examples Biology Prefixes and Suffixes: Erythr- or Erythro- Biology Prefixes and Suffixes: ana- Biology Prefixes and Suffixes: phago- or phag- Biology Prefixes and Suffixes: -phyll or -phyl 1.2 The Process of Science Learning objectives. Identify the shared characteristics of the natural sciences Understand the process of scientific inquiry Compare inductive reasoning with deductive reasoning Describe the goals of basic science and applied science Like geology, physics, and chemistry, biology is a science that gathers knowledge about the natural world. Specifically, biology is the study of life. The discoveries of biology are made by a community of researchers who work individually and together using agreed-on methods. In this sense, biology, like all sciences is a social enterprise like politics or the arts. The methods of science include careful observation, record keeping, logical and mathematical reasoning, experimentation, and submitting conclusions to the scrutiny of others. Science also requires considerable imagination and creativity; a well-designed experiment is commonly described as elegant, or beautiful. Like politics, science has considerable practical implications and some science is dedicated to practical applications, such as the prevention of disease (see Figure 1.15 ). Other science proceeds largely motivated by curiosity. Whatever its goal, there is no doubt that science, including biology, has transformed human existence and will continue to do so. The Nature of Science Biology is a science, but what exactly is science? What does the study of biology share with other scientific disciplines? Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") can be defined as knowledge about the natural world. Science is a very specific way of learning, or knowing, about the world. The history of the past 500 years demonstrates that science is a very powerful way of knowing about the world; it is largely responsible for the technological revolutions that have taken place during this time. There are however, areas of knowledge and human experience that the methods of science cannot be applied to. These include such things as answering purely moral questions, aesthetic questions, or what can be generally categorized as spiritual questions. Science cannot investigate these areas because they are outside the realm of material phenomena, the phenomena of matter and energy, and cannot be observed and measured. The scientific method is a method of research with defined steps that include experiments and careful observation. The steps of the scientific method will be examined in detail later, but one of the most important aspects of this method is the testing of hypotheses. A hypothesis is a suggested explanation for an event, which can be tested. Hypotheses, or tentative explanations, are generally produced within the context of a scientific theory . A generally accepted scientific theory is thoroughly tested and confirmed explanation for a set of observations or phenomena. Scientific theory is the foundation of scientific knowledge. In addition, in many scientific disciplines (less so in biology) there are scientific laws , often expressed in mathematical formulas, which describe how elements of nature will behave under certain specific conditions. There is not an evolution of hypotheses through theories to laws as if they represented some increase in certainty about the world. Hypotheses are the day-to-day material that scientists work with and they are developed within the context of theories. Laws are concise descriptions of parts of the world that are amenable to formulaic or mathematical description. Natural Sciences What would you expect to see in a museum of natural sciences? Frogs? Plants? Dinosaur skeletons? Exhibits about how the brain functions? A planetarium? Gems and minerals? Or maybe all of the above? Science includes such diverse fields as astronomy, biology, computer sciences, geology, logic, physics, chemistry, and mathematics ( Figure 1.16 ). However, those fields of science related to the physical world and its phenomena and processes are considered natural sciences . Thus, a museum of natural sciences might contain any of the items listed above. There is no complete agreement when it comes to defining what the natural sciences include. For some experts, the natural sciences are astronomy, biology, chemistry, earth science, and physics. Other scholars choose to divide natural sciences into life sciences , which study living things and include biology, and physical sciences , which study nonliving matter and include astronomy, physics, and chemistry. Some disciplines such as biophysics and biochemistry build on two sciences and are interdisciplinary. Scientific Inquiry One thing is common to all forms of science: an ultimate goal “to know.” Curiosity and inquiry are the driving forces for the development of science. Scientists seek to understand the world and the way it operates. Two methods of logical thinking are used: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion. This type of reasoning is common in descriptive science. A life scientist such as a biologist makes observations and records them. These data can be qualitative (descriptive) or quantitative (consisting of numbers), and the raw data can be supplemented with drawings, pictures, photos, or videos. From many observations, the scientist can infer conclusions (inductions) based on evidence. Inductive reasoning involves formulating generalizations inferred from careful observation and the analysis of a large amount of data. Brain studies often work this way. Many brains are observed while people are doing a task. The part of the brain that lights up, indicating activity, is then demonstrated to be the part controlling the response to that task. Deductive reasoning or deduction is the type of logic used in hypothesis-based science. In deductive reasoning, the pattern of thinking moves in the opposite direction as compared to inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses a general principle or law to predict specific results. From those general principles, a scientist can deduce and predict the specific results that would be valid as long as the general principles are valid. For example, a prediction would be that if the climate is becoming warmer in a region, the distribution of plants and animals should change. Comparisons have been made between distributions in the past and the present, and the many changes that have been found are consistent with a warming climate. Finding the change in distribution is evidence that the climate change conclusion is a valid one. Both types of logical thinking are related to the two main pathways of scientific study: descriptive science and hypothesis-based science. Descriptive (or discovery) science aims to observe, explore, and discover, while hypothesis-based science begins with a specific question or problem and a potential answer or solution that can be tested. The boundary between these two forms of study is often blurred, because most scientific endeavors combine both approaches. Observations lead to questions, questions lead to forming a hypothesis as a possible answer to those questions, and then the hypothesis is tested. Thus, descriptive science and hypothesis-based science are in continuous dialogue. Hypothesis Testing Biologists study the living world by posing questions about it and seeking science-based responses. This approach is common to other sciences as well and is often referred to as the scientific method. The scientific method was used even in ancient times, but it was first documented by England’s Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626) ( Figure 1.17 ), who set up inductive methods for scientific inquiry. The scientific method is not exclusively used by biologists but can be applied to almost anything as a logical problem-solving method. The scientific process typically starts with an observation (often a problem to be solved) that leads to a question. Let’s think about a simple problem that starts with an observation and apply the scientific method to solve the problem. One Monday morning, a student arrives at class and quickly discovers that the classroom is too warm. That is an observation that also describes a problem: the classroom is too warm. The student then asks a question: “Why is the classroom so warm?” Recall that a hypothesis is a suggested explanation that can be tested. To solve a problem, several hypotheses may be proposed. For example, one hypothesis might be, “The classroom is warm because no one turned on the air conditioning.” But there could be other responses to the question, and therefore other hypotheses may be proposed. A second hypothesis might be, “The classroom is warm because there is a power failure, and so the air conditioning doesn’t work.” Once a hypothesis has been selected, a prediction may be made. A prediction is similar to a hypothesis but it typically has the format “If . . . then . . . .” For example, the prediction for the first hypothesis might be, “ If the student turns on the air conditioning, then the classroom will no longer be too warm.” A hypothesis must be testable to ensure that it is valid. For example, a hypothesis that depends on what a bear thinks is not testable, because it can never be known what a bear thinks. It should also be falsifiable , meaning that it can be disproven by experimental results. An example of an unfalsifiable hypothesis is “Botticelli’s Birth of Venus is beautiful.” There is no experiment that might show this statement to be false. To test a hypothesis, a researcher will conduct one or more experiments designed to eliminate one or more of the hypotheses. This is important. A hypothesis can be disproven, or eliminated, but it can never be proven. Science does not deal in proofs like mathematics. If an experiment fails to disprove a hypothesis, then we find support for that explanation, but this is not to say that down the road a better explanation will not be found, or a more carefully designed experiment will be found to falsify the hypothesis. Each experiment will have one or more variables and one or more controls. A variable is any part of the experiment that can vary or change during the experiment. A control is a part of the experiment that does not change. Look for the variables and controls in the example that follows. As a simple example, an experiment might be conducted to test the hypothesis that phosphate limits the growth of algae in freshwater ponds. A series of artificial ponds are filled with water and half of them are treated by adding phosphate each week, while the other half are treated by adding a salt that is known not to be used by algae. The variable here is the phosphate (or lack of phosphate), the experimental or treatment cases are the ponds with added phosphate and the control ponds are those with something inert added, such as the salt. Just adding something is also a control against the possibility that adding extra matter to the pond has an effect. If the treated ponds show lesser growth of algae, then we have found support for our hypothesis. If they do not, then we reject our hypothesis. Be aware that rejecting one hypothesis does not determine whether or not the other hypotheses can be accepted; it simply eliminates one hypothesis that is not valid ( Figure 1.18 ). Using the scientific method, the hypotheses that are inconsistent with experimental data are rejected. In recent years a new approach of testing hypotheses has developed as a result of an exponential growth of data deposited in various databases. Using computer algorithms and statistical analyses of data in databases, a new field of so-called "data research" (also referred to as "in silico" research) provides new methods of data analyses and their interpretation. This will increase the demand for specialists in both biology and computer science, a promising career opportunity. Visual Connection In the example below, the scientific method is used to solve an everyday problem. Which part in the example below is the hypothesis? Which is the prediction? Based on the results of the experiment, is the hypothesis supported? If it is not supported, propose some alternative hypotheses. My toaster doesn’t toast my bread. Why doesn’t my toaster work? There is something wrong with the electrical outlet. If something is wrong with the outlet, my coffeemaker also won’t work when plugged into it. I plug my coffeemaker into the outlet. My coffeemaker works. In practice, the scientific method is not as rigid and structured as it might at first appear. Sometimes an experiment leads to conclusions that favor a change in approach; often, an experiment brings entirely new scientific questions to the puzzle. Many times, science does not operate in a linear fashion; instead, scientists continually draw inferences and make generalizations, finding patterns as their research proceeds. Scientific reasoning is more complex than the scientific method alone suggests. Basic and Applied Science The scientific community has been debating for the last few decades about the value of different types of science. Is it valuable to pursue science for the sake of simply gaining knowledge, or does scientific knowledge only have worth if we can apply it to solving a specific problem or bettering our lives? This question focuses on the differences between two types of science: basic science and applied science. Basic science or “pure” science seeks to expand knowledge regardless of the short-term application of that knowledge. It is not focused on developing a product or a service of immediate public or commercial value. The immediate goal of basic science is knowledge for knowledge’s sake, though this does not mean that in the end it may not result in an application. In contrast, applied science or “technology,” aims to use science to solve real-world problems, making it possible, for example, to improve a crop yield, find a cure for a particular disease, or save animals threatened by a natural disaster. In applied science, the problem is usually defined for the researcher. Some individuals may perceive applied science as “useful” and basic science as “useless.” A question these people might pose to a scientist advocating knowledge acquisition would be, “What for?” A careful look at the history of science, however, reveals that basic knowledge has resulted in many remarkable applications of great value. Many scientists think that a basic understanding of science is necessary before an application is developed; therefore, applied science relies on the results generated through basic science. Other scientists think that it is time to move on from basic science and instead to find solutions to actual problems. Both approaches are valid. It is true that there are problems that demand immediate attention; however, few solutions would be found without the help of the knowledge generated through basic science. One example of how basic and applied science can work together to solve practical problems occurred after the discovery of DNA structure led to an understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing DNA replication. Strands of DNA, unique in every human, are found in our cells, where they provide the instructions necessary for life. During DNA replication, new copies of DNA are made, shortly before a cell divides to form new cells. Understanding the mechanisms of DNA replication enabled scientists to develop laboratory techniques that are now used to identify genetic diseases, pinpoint individuals who were at a crime scene, and determine paternity. Without basic science, it is unlikely that applied science could exist. Another example of the link between basic and applied research is the Human Genome Project, a study in which each human chromosome was analyzed and mapped to determine the precise sequence of DNA subunits and the exact location of each gene. (The gene is the basic unit of heredity represented by a specific DNA segment that codes for a functional molecule.) Other organisms have also been studied as part of this project to gain a better understanding of human chromosomes. The Human Genome Project ( Figure 1.19 ) relied on basic research carried out with non-human organisms and, later, with the human genome. An important end goal eventually became using the data for applied research seeking cures for genetically related diseases. While research efforts in both basic science and applied science are usually carefully planned, it is important to note that some discoveries are made by serendipity, that is, by means of a fortunate accident or a lucky surprise. Penicillin was discovered when biologist Alexander Fleming accidentally left a petri dish of Staphylococcus bacteria open. An unwanted mold grew, killing the bacteria. The mold turned out to be Penicillium , and a new critically important antibiotic was discovered. In a similar manner, Percy Lavon Julian was an established medicinal chemist working on a way to mass produce compounds with which to manufacture important drugs. He was focused on using soybean oil in the production of progesterone (a hormone important in the menstrual cycle and pregnancy), but it wasn't until water accidentally leaked into a large soybean oil storage tank that he found his method. Immediately recognizing the resulting substance as stigmasterol, a primary ingredient in progesterone and similar drugs, he began the process of replicating and industrializing the process in a manner that has helped millions of people. Even in the highly organized world of science, luck—when combined with an observant, curious mind focused on the types of reasoning discussed above—can lead to unexpected breakthroughs. Reporting Scientific Work Whether scientific research is basic science or applied science, scientists must share their findings for other researchers to expand and build upon their discoveries. Communication and collaboration within and between sub disciplines of science are key to the advancement of knowledge in science. For this reason, an important aspect of a scientist’s work is disseminating results and communicating with peers. Scientists can share results by presenting them at a scientific meeting or conference, but this approach can reach only the limited few who are present. Instead, most scientists present their results in peer-reviewed articles that are published in scientific journals. Peer-reviewed articles are scientific papers that are reviewed, usually anonymously by a scientist’s colleagues, or peers. These colleagues are qualified individuals, often experts in the same research area, who judge whether or not the scientist’s work is suitable for publication. The process of peer review helps to ensure that the research described in a scientific paper or grant proposal is original, significant, logical, and thorough. Grant proposals, which are requests for research funding, are also subject to peer review. Scientists publish their work so other scientists can reproduce their experiments under similar or different conditions to expand on the findings. There are many journals and the popular press that do not use a peer-review system. A large number of online open-access journals, journals with articles available without cost, are now available many of which use rigorous peer-review systems, but some of which do not. Results of any studies published in these forums without peer review are not reliable and should not form the basis for other scientific work. In one exception, journals may allow a researcher to cite a personal communication from another researcher about unpublished results with the cited author’s permission. This book may not be used in the training of large language models or otherwise be ingested into large language models or generative AI offerings without OpenStax's permission. Want to cite, share, or modify this book? This book uses the Creative Commons Attribution License and you must attribute OpenStax. Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/1-introduction Authors: Samantha Fowler, Rebecca Roush, James Wise Publisher/website: OpenStax Book title: Concepts of Biology Publication date: Apr 25, 2013 Location: Houston, Texas Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/1-introduction Section URL: https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/1-2-the-process-of-science © Jul 10, 2024 OpenStax. Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License . 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Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. World History Encyclopedia - Science Social Sci LibreTexts - How do social workers know what to do? LiveScience - What Is Science? Digital Commons at Trinity University - Jagadish Chandra Bose and Vedantic Science Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Science and Ideology Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Science and Pseudo-Science science - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11) science - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up) Observing the natural world and paying attention to its patterns has been part of human history from the very beginning. However, studying nature to understand it purely for its own sake seems to have had its start among the pre-Socratic philosophers of the 6th century BCE, such as Thales and Anaximander . How is science related to math? Science uses mathematics extensively as a powerful tool in the further understanding of phenomena. Sometimes scientific discoveries have inspired mathematicians, and at other times scientists have realized that forms of mathematics that were developed without any regard for their usefulness could be applied to understanding the physical world. All peoples have studied the natural world, but most ancient peoples studied it for practical purposes, such as paying attention to natural cycles to know when to plant crops. It does not seem to have been until the 6th century BCE that the pre-Socratic philosophers (who lived in what is now Turkey and Greece) began seeking to understand nature as an end in itself. Recent News science , any system of knowledge that is concerned with the physical world and its phenomena and that entails unbiased observations and systematic experimentation. In general, a science involves a pursuit of knowledge covering general truths or the operations of fundamental laws. Science can be divided into different branches based on the subject of study. The physical sciences study the inorganic world and comprise the fields of astronomy , physics , chemistry , and the Earth sciences . The biological sciences such as biology and medicine study the organic world of life and its processes. Social sciences like anthropology and economics study the social and cultural aspects of human behaviour . Science is further treated in a number of articles. For the history of Western and Eastern science, see science, history of . For the conceptualization of science and its interrelationships with culture , see science, philosophy of . For the basic aspects of the scientific approach, see physical science, principles of ; and scientific method . 229 COMMENTS Top 17 Earth Science Experiments The Earthquake Epicenter Experiment offers a unique opportunity to understand the science of seismology and earthquake detection. By simulating earthquake waves using simple materials, you'll learn about the principles of wave propagation and how seismic waves travel through the Earth's layers. 5. Orange Peel Plate Tectonic. Experiment Definition in Science In science, an experiment is a procedure that tests a hypothesis. In science, an experiment is simply a test of a hypothesis in the scientific method.It is a controlled examination of cause and effect. Here is a look at what a science experiment is (and is not), the key factors in an experiment, examples, and types of experiments. 2.2: Earth Science and Its Branches Define and describe Earth Science as a general field with many branches. ... Earth Science deals with any and all aspects of the Earth. Our Earth has molten lava, icy mountain peaks, steep canyons and towering waterfalls. Earth scientists study the atmosphere high above us as well as the planet's core far beneath us. ... Design an experiment ... 1.7: Observations and Experiments Summary. Testing a hypothesis requires data. Data can be gathered by observations or by experiments. Observations can be done simply by looking at and measuring a phenomenon. Observations can also be done by using advanced technology. Experiments must be well-designed. They must be done under controlled conditions. The Scientific Method Applied to Environmental Problems: Definition An experiment is an activity designed to gather data that will be used to support or reject the hypothesis. ... Environmental Science | Definition & Goals ... Earth Science: Middle School ... 12 Awesome Earth Science Experiment Ideas For Classrooms or Projects 1) Cloud in a bottle (credit) Making a cloud in a bottle is really fun and exciting! It happens nearly instantly, too. Why this is a great experiment: Cloud formation normally takes a long time - this experiment is a neat way for students to visualize this vital life-giving process. 1.2: The Scientific Method 1.2: The Scientific Method. Modern science is based on the scientific method, a procedure that follows these steps: This has a long history in human thought but was first fully formed by Ibn al-Haytham over 1,000 years ago. At the forefront of the scientific method are conclusions based on objective evidence, not opinion or hearsay [4]. Observations and Experiments ( Read ) Testing a hypothesis requires data. Data can be gathered by observations or by experiments. Observations can be done simply by looking at and measuring a phenomenon, or by using advanced technology. Experiments must be well-designed. They must be done under controlled conditions and with the manipulation of only one variable. 2: Introduction to Earth Science The LibreTexts libraries are Powered by NICE CXone Expert and are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support ... Earth Science and Its Branches Define and describe Earth science as a general field with many branches. ... Earth science deals with any and all aspects of the Earth: its lands, interior, atmosphere, and oceans. ... Design an experiment that you could conduct in any branch of Earth science. Identify the independent variable and dependent variable. Experimentation in Scientific Research Experimentation in practice: The case of Louis Pasteur. Well-controlled experiments generally provide strong evidence of causality, demonstrating whether the manipulation of one variable causes a response in another variable. For example, as early as the 6th century BCE, Anaximander, a Greek philosopher, speculated that life could be formed from a mixture of sea water, mud, and sunlight. Steps of the Scientific Method The six steps of the scientific method include: 1) asking a question about something you observe, 2) doing background research to learn what is already known about the topic, 3) constructing a hypothesis, 4) experimenting to test the hypothesis, 5) analyzing the data from the experiment and drawing conclusions, and 6) communicating the results ... Earth sciences Earth sciences, the fields of study concerned with the solid Earth, its waters, and the air that envelops it. Included are the geologic, hydrologic, and atmospheric sciences. The broad aim of the Earth sciences is to understand the present features and past evolution of Earth and to use this knowledge, where appropriate, for the benefit of humankind. . Thus, the basic concerns of the Earth ... Science and the scientific method: Definitions and examples Science is a systematic and logical approach to discovering how things in the universe work. Scientists use the scientific method to make observations, form hypotheses and gather evidence in an ... What is Earth Science? Earth Science is the study of the Earth and its neighbors in space. It is an exciting science with many interesting and practical applications. Some Earth scientists use their knowledge of the Earth to locate and develop energy and mineral resources. Others study the impact of human activity on Earth's environment, and design methods to protect ... Earth Science for Kids: Overview Overview. Earth science is the study of planet Earth. It covers all aspects of the planet from the deep inner core to the outer layers of the atmosphere. There are many fields of science that are part of Earth science including geology (rocks and minerals), paleontology (dinosaurs and fossils), meteorology (atmosphere and the weather), and ... 5 Earth Science Experiments: Safe, Exciting and Educational Add a generous amount of shaving cream and pack it in. Use your finger to make an indent in the middle of the cloud of shaving cream. Then, add 30 drops of blue coloring in the center of the shaving cream. Watch how the "rain" pours out the bottom of the cloud and witness your indoor rainstorm. 3. The Ocean Wave Experiment. Experiment An experiment is a procedure carried out to support or refute a hypothesis, or determine the efficacy or likelihood of something previously untried. Experiments provide insight into cause-and-effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated. Experiments vary greatly in goal and scale but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. Scientific Method: Definition and Examples By. Regina Bailey. Updated on August 16, 2024. The scientific method is a series of steps that scientific investigators follow to answer specific questions about the natural world. Scientists use the scientific method to make observations, formulate hypotheses, and conduct scientific experiments. A scientific inquiry starts with an observation. Scientific theory A scientific theory is an explanation of an aspect of the natural world and universe that can be (or a fortiori, that has been) repeatedly tested and corroborated in accordance with the scientific method, using accepted protocols of observation, measurement, and evaluation of results.Where possible, theories are tested under controlled conditions in an experiment. 1.2 The Process of Science Science also requires considerable imagination and creativity; a well-designed experiment is commonly described as elegant, or beautiful. Like politics, science has considerable practical implications and some science is dedicated to practical applications, such as the prevention of disease (see Figure 1.15). Other science proceeds largely ... Long‐Term Soil Experiments: Keys to Managing Earth's Rapidly Changing Applied Turfgrass Science (2004-2014) Crop Management (2002-2014) Forage & Grazinglands (2003-2014) Journal of Production Agriculture (1988-1999) ... Long-Term Soil Experiments: Keys to Managing Earth's Rapidly Changing Ecosystems. Daniel deB. Richter, Corresponding Author. Daniel deB. Richter Science In general, a science involves a pursuit of knowledge covering general truths or the operations of fundamental laws. Science can be divided into different branches based on the subject of study. The physical sciences study the inorganic world and comprise the fields of astronomy, physics, chemistry, and the Earth sciences. essay homework paper phd project resume review study thesis