topics of research in developmental psychology

Developmental Psychology Research Paper Topics

This page provides a comprehensive list of developmental psychology research paper topics , designed to support students in exploring the vast field of human growth and psychological development. Developmental psychology examines the changes in cognitive, emotional, and social behavior that occur throughout a person’s life, from infancy to old age. This discipline not only seeks to understand the nature of these changes but also the processes that underlie them, including biological, environmental, and cultural influences. By delving into topics such as infant attachment, adolescent identity formation, adult aging, and the impact of developmental disorders, students can gain insights into the complexity of developmental trajectories. This resource aims to inspire students to investigate the diverse aspects of developmental psychology, offering a foundation for research that contributes to our understanding of human development and informs practices in education, healthcare, and policy-making.

100 Developmental Psychology Research Paper Topics

Developmental psychology stands as a fascinating field that delves into the growth and transformation of human behavior and mental processes throughout a person’s life. It encompasses a broad spectrum of research topics, each shedding light on the various aspects of development—cognitive, emotional, social, and physical. This area of psychology not only aims to chart the normative patterns of development but also to understand the variances and factors influencing these trajectories. The scope of research within developmental psychology is vast, offering rich insights into how individuals evolve from infancy through old age, influenced by their genetics, environment, culture, and experiences.

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• Attachment theories and their implications in early childhood
• The role of play in cognitive and social development
• Impact of parenting styles on child behavior and emotional health
• Early intervention strategies for developmental delays
• The effects of technology use on young children’s development
• Childhood resilience and adversity
• Peer relationships and social skills in childhood
• Developmental milestones and their variations
• The influence of early education on lifelong learning
• Neurodevelopmental aspects of child psychology
• Identity formation and self-concept in adolescence
• Adolescent mental health and coping strategies
• The impact of social media on adolescent self-esteem and relationships
• Risk-taking behavior and decision-making in adolescence
• The transition from adolescence to adulthood
• Peer pressure and its psychological implications
• Gender identity and sexual orientation development
• The role of family dynamics in adolescent development
• School engagement and academic achievement
• Cultural variations in adolescence experiences
• Psychological theories of aging and life satisfaction
• Cognitive changes in the aging process
• Retirement and the transition to later life
• Aging and mental health: challenges and interventions
• Adult learning and brain plasticity
• The impact of physical health on psychological well-being in older adults
• Social relationships and aging
• Age-related psychological disorders
• Coping with loss and bereavement in old age
• The role of leisure and hobbies in promoting healthy aging
• Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
• Vygotsky’s theory of social development and its implications
• The development of problem-solving skills and logical reasoning
• Memory development across the lifespan
• The role of curiosity and exploration in cognitive development
• Language acquisition and cognitive growth
• The impact of bilingualism on cognitive flexibility
• Cognitive decline with aging: prevention and management
• Executive functions development in children and adolescents
• The influence of nutrition and physical health on cognitive development
• Emotional regulation strategies across different stages of life
• The development of empathy and moral reasoning
• Socialization processes and their outcomes
• The psychology of friendship and romantic relationships
• Cultural and family influences on emotional expression
• The impact of trauma on social and emotional development
• Development of self-esteem and its fluctuations
• Bullying and its long-term psychological effects
• Coping mechanisms for stress and adversity
• The role of emotional intelligence in personal and professional success
• Stages of language acquisition in infancy and early childhood
• The role of environment in language learning
• Language disorders: identification and intervention
• Second language learning and cognitive development
• The relationship between language and thought
• Sign language development in deaf children
• Socioeconomic status and language development
• The critical period hypothesis for language learning
• Language and literacy: building blocks for academic success
• Cross-linguistic comparisons of language development
• Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
• The role of culture in shaping moral values
• Ethical dilemmas and decision-making in children and adults
• The influence of religion on moral development
• Social justice awareness and activism in youth
• Development of conscience and guilt mechanisms
• Prosocial behavior and its roots in early childhood
• Peer influences on ethical behavior
• The psychology of altruism and empathy
• Moral disengagement and its consequences
• Autism spectrum disorders: early detection and lifelong management
• ADHD in children and adults: challenges and coping strategies
• Learning disabilities and educational interventions
• Down syndrome and developmental milestones
• The impact of prenatal exposure to toxins on development
• Early signs of developmental disorders and the importance of screening
• Support systems for families dealing with developmental disorders
• Intellectual disabilities and social inclusion
• The role of genetics in developmental disorders
• Transitioning to adulthood with a developmental disorder
• Cross-cultural studies on child-rearing practices
• The impact of globalization on developmental norms
• Cultural identity development in a multicultural society
• Indigenous perspectives on development
• Biculturalism and its effects on individual development
• Racial and ethnic disparities in access to developmental resources
• Cultural variations in the perception of aging
• The role of language in cultural integration
• Cultural competence in developmental psychology research and practice
• Tradition vs. modernity: impacts on developmental pathways
• Longitudinal vs. cross-sectional studies in developmental research
• Qualitative methods in studying developmental processes
• The use of technology in developmental psychology research
• Ethical considerations in conducting research with minors
• The role of case studies in understanding unique developmental trajectories
• Innovative data collection techniques in developmental research
• The challenges of replicability and generalizability in developmental studies
• Integrating biological, psychological, and social models in developmental research
• The use of meta-analysis in synthesizing developmental psychology findings
• Collaborative international research in developmental psychology

The exploration of developmental psychology research paper topics offers a window into the fascinating journey of human growth and transformation across the lifespan. By engaging with this broad array of topics, students have the opportunity to contribute to a deeper understanding of the intricate processes that shape human development. Such research is not only academically enriching but also has the potential to inform practices and policies in education, healthcare, and beyond, ultimately improving lives and fostering healthy development from infancy through old age. Students are encouraged to pursue topics that spark their curiosity and align with their academic and professional goals, contributing their voices to the rich tapestry of developmental psychology research.

What is Developmental Psychology?

Introduction.

Studying developmental psychology is pivotal for several reasons. It aids in identifying normative patterns of development and the wide variance among individuals due to different influences. This understanding is crucial for parents, educators, and healthcare professionals to support individuals’ developmental needs. Furthermore, it informs interventions aimed at mitigating developmental challenges and maximizing the potential for growth and learning.

Research Importance

Research in developmental psychology is fundamental in advancing our understanding of human development stages. It sheds light on the mechanisms underlying changes from childhood through adulthood and into old age. This research enriches our knowledge base, offering critical insights that drive theoretical advancements and practical applications in educational curricula, parenting strategies, and therapeutic interventions.

The implications of developmental psychology research span various domains. In education, it informs teaching methods that cater to the developmental stages of learners. In healthcare, it guides age-appropriate care strategies. Research findings also influence policy-making, particularly in creating supportive environments that promote healthy development across the lifespan.

Diverse Topics Exploration

The exploration of topics within developmental psychology is as diverse as the stages of human life. It includes the study of attachment in infancy, the impact of adolescence on identity formation, and the challenges of aging. Each topic not only contributes to our theoretical understanding but also addresses practical concerns faced by individuals at different life stages.

These topics are highly relevant to current societal challenges. For example, understanding adolescent development can inform strategies to navigate the digital world’s challenges, while insights into aging are crucial in societies with increasing life expectancies. Developmental psychology research thus plays a critical role in formulating responses to the evolving needs of populations.

Recent Advancements

Recent years have seen significant methodological innovations in developmental psychology. Longitudinal studies tracking the same individuals over many years provide valuable data on changes and consistencies in development. Technological advancements, like neuroimaging, offer new insights into the brain’s developmental changes, enhancing our understanding of cognitive processes across the lifespan.

Theoretical advancements have deepened our understanding of developmental processes, integrating perspectives from genetics, neurology, and sociology. Interdisciplinary research, bridging fields like developmental psychology and education, fosters a more holistic understanding of how individuals learn and grow, spotlighting the interplay between biology, environment, and culture in development.

Ethical Considerations

Conducting research in developmental psychology involves navigating significant ethical challenges, particularly when working with vulnerable populations such as children or elderly individuals. Ensuring informed consent, maintaining privacy, and considering the long-term impact of research findings are paramount to ethical research practices in this field.

Cultural sensitivity is crucial in developmental psychology research. Studies must respect cultural differences in development and parenting practices, recognizing that developmental milestones and norms can vary widely across cultures. This approach ensures that research is inclusive and reflective of diverse human experiences.

Future Directions

Future research in developmental psychology is likely to focus on emerging trends such as the impact of technology on development, the psychology of climate change on young generations, and the increasing importance of understanding development in multicultural contexts. These areas present new challenges and opportunities for developmental psychologists to explore.

The field also faces challenges, including the need for more diverse and inclusive research samples and methodologies that can capture the complexity of human development in a rapidly changing world. However, these challenges also offer opportunities to innovate and expand the field’s reach, making developmental psychology more relevant and applicable than ever before.

The critical role of research in developmental psychology cannot be overstated. It is fundamental to understanding the intricate processes of human development, providing insights that help navigate the complexities of growth and change. As societal contexts and challenges evolve, so too will the field of developmental psychology, continuing to offer vital contributions to our understanding of human behavior and aiding in societal progress.

Developmental Psychology Assignment Help

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Developmental Psychology 101: Theories, Stages, & Research

You can imagine how vast this field of psychology is if it has to cover the whole of life, from birth through death.

Just like any other area of psychology, it has created exciting debates and given rise to fascinating case studies.

In recent years, developmental psychology has shifted to incorporate positive psychology paradigms to create a holistic lifespan approach. As an example, the knowledge gained from positive psychology can enhance the development of children in education.

In this article, you will learn a lot about different aspects of developmental psychology, including how it first emerged in history and famous theories and models.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free . These science-based exercises explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology, including strengths, values, and self-compassion, and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students, or employees.

This Article Contains:

What is developmental psychology, 4 popular theories, stages, & models, 2 questions and research topics, fascinating case studies & research findings, a look at positive developmental psychology, applying developmental psychology in education, resources from positivepsychology.com, a take-home message.

Human beings change drastically over our lifetime.

The American Psychological Association (2020) defines developmental psychology as the study of physical, mental, and behavioral changes, from conception through old age.

Developmental psychology investigates biological, genetic, neurological, psychosocial, cultural, and environmental factors of human growth (Burman, 2017).

Over the years, developmental psychology has been influenced by numerous theories and models in varied branches of psychology (Burman, 2017).

History of developmental psychology

Developmental psychology first appeared as an area of study in the late 19th century (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2007). Developmental psychology focused initially on child and adolescent development, and was concerned about children’s minds and learning (Hall, 1883).

There are several key figures in developmental psychology. In 1877, the famous evolutionary biologist Charles Darwin undertook the first study of developmental psychology on innate communication forms. Not long after, physiologist William Preyer (1888) published a book on the abilities of an infant.

The 1900s saw many significant people dominating the developmental psychology field with their detailed theories of development: Sigmund Freud (1923, 1961), Jean Piaget (1928), Erik Erikson (1959), Lev Vygotsky (1978), John Bowlby (1958), and Albert Bandura (1977).

By the 1920s, the scope of developmental psychology had begun to include adult development and the aging process (Thompson, 2016).

In more recent years, it has broadened further to include prenatal development (Brandon et al., 2009). Developmental psychology is now understood to encompass the complete lifespan (Baltes et al., 2007).

Each of these models has contributed to the understanding of the process of human development and growth.

Furthermore, each theory and model focuses on different aspects of development: social, emotional, psychosexual, behavioral, attachment, social learning, and many more.

Here are some of the most popular models of development that have heavily contributed to the field of developmental psychology.

1. Bowlby’s attachment styles

The seminal work of psychologist John Bowlby (1958) showcased his interest in children’s social development. Bowlby (1969, 1973, 1980) developed the most famous theory of social development, known as attachment theory .

Bowlby (1969) hypothesized that the need to form attachments is innate, embedded in all humans for survival and essential for children’s development. This instinctive bond helps ensure that children are cared for by their parent or caregiver (Bowlby, 1969, 1973, 1980).

Bowlby’s original attachment work was developed further by one of his students, Mary Ainsworth. She proposed several attachment styles between the child and the caregiver (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970).

This theory clearly illustrates the importance of attachment styles to a child’s future development. Consistent and stable caregiving results in a secure attachment style (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978). In contrast, unstable and insecure caregiving results in several negative attachment styles: ambivalent, avoidant, or disorganized (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970; Main & Solomon, 1986).

Bowlby’s theory does not consider peer group influence or how it can shape children’s personality and development (Harris, 1998).

2. Piaget’s stage theory

Jean Piaget was a French psychologist highly interested in child development. He was interested in children’s thinking and how they acquire, construct, and use their knowledge (Piaget, 1951).

Piaget’s (1951) four-stage theory of cognitive development sequences a child’s intellectual development. According to this theory, all children move through these four stages of development in the same order (Simatwa, 2010).

The sensorimotor stage is from birth to two years old. Behaviors are triggered by sensory stimuli and limited to simple motor responses. If an object is removed from the child’s vision, they think it no longer exists (Piaget, 1936).

The pre-operational stage occurs between two and six years old. The child learns language but cannot mentally manipulate information or understand concrete logic (Wadsworth, 1971).

The concrete operational stage takes place from 7 to 11 years old. Children begin to think more logically about factual events. Abstract or hypothetical concepts are still difficult to understand in this stage (Wadsworth, 1971).

In the formal operational stage from 12 years to adulthood, abstract thought and skills arise (Piaget, 1936).

Piaget did not consider other factors that might affect these stages or a child’s progress through them. Biological maturation and interaction with the environment can determine the rate of cognitive development in children (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Individual differences can also dictate a child’s progress (Berger, 2014).

3. Freud’s psychosexual development theory

One of the most influential developmental theories, which encompassed psychosexual stages of development, was developed by Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (Fisher & Greenberg, 1996).

Freud concluded that childhood experiences and unconscious desires influence behavior after witnessing his female patients experiencing physical symptoms and distress with no physical cause (Breuer & Freud, 1957).

According to Freud’s psychosexual theory, child development occurs in a series of stages, each focused on different pleasure areas of the body. During each stage, the child encounters conflicts, which play a significant role in development (Silverman, 2017).

Freud’s theory of psychosexual development includes the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages. His theory suggests that the energy of the libido is focused on these different erogenous zones at each specific stage (Silverman, 2017).

Freud concluded that the successful completion of each stage leads to healthy adult development. He also suggested that a failure to progress through a stage causes fixation and developmental difficulties, such as nail biting (oral fixation) or obsessive tidiness (anal fixation; Silverman, 2017).

Freud considered personality to be formed in childhood as a child passes through these stages. Criticisms of Freud’s theory of psychosexual development include its failure to consider that personality can change and grow over an entire lifetime. Freud believed that early experiences played the most significant role in shaping development (Silverman, 2017).

4. Bandura’s social learning theory

American psychologist Albert Bandura proposed the social learning theory (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1961). Bandura did not believe that classical or operant conditioning was enough to explain learned behavior because some behaviors of children are never reinforced (Bandura, 1986). He believed that children observe, imitate, and model the behaviors and reactions of others (Bandura, 1977).

Bandura suggested that observation is critical in learning. Further, the observation does not have to be of a live actor, such as in the Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1986). Bandura et al. (1961) considered that learning and modeling can also occur from listening to verbal instructions on behavior performance.

Bandura’s (1977) social theory posits that both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence development.

Bandura’s developmental theory has been criticized for not considering biological factors or children’s autonomic nervous system responses (Kevin, 1995).

Overview of theories of development – Khan Academy

Developmental psychology has given rise to many debatable questions and research topics. Here are two of the most commonly discussed.

1. Nature vs nurture debate

One of the oldest debates in the field of developmental psychology has been between nature and nurture (Levitt, 2013).

Is human development a result of hereditary factors (genes), or is it influenced by the environment (school, family, relationships, peers, community, culture)?

The polarized position of developmental psychologists of the past has now changed. The nature/nurture question now concerns the relationship between the innateness of an attribute and the environmental effects on that attribute (Nesterak, 2015).

The field of epigenetics describes how behavioral and environmental influences affect the expression of genes (Kubota, Miyake, & Hirasawa, 2012).

Many severe mental health disorders have a hereditary component. Yet, the environment and behavior, such as improved diet, reduced stress, physical activity, and a positive mindset, can determine whether this health condition is ever expressed (Śmigielski, Jagannath, Rössler, Walitza, & Grünblatt, 2020).

When considering classic models of developmental psychology, such as Piaget’s schema theory and Freud’s psychosexual theory, you’ll see that they both perceive development to be set in stone and unchangeable by the environment.

Contemporary developmental psychology theories take a different approach. They stress the importance of multiple levels of organization over the course of human development (Lomas, Hefferon, & Ivtzan, 2016).

2. Theory of mind

Theory of mind allows us to understand that others have different intentions, beliefs, desires, perceptions, behaviors, and emotions (American Psychological Association, 2020).

It was first identified by research by Premack and Woodruff (1978) and considered to be a natural developmental stage of progression for all children. Starting around the ages of four or five, children begin to think about the thoughts and feelings of others. This shows an emergence of the theory of mind (Wellman & Liu, 2004).

However, the ability of all individuals to achieve and maintain this critical skill at the same level is debatable.

Children diagnosed with autism exhibit a deficit in the theory of mind (Baron-Cohen, Leslie, & Frith, 1985).

Individuals with depression (psychotic and non-psychotic) are significantly impaired in theory of mind tasks (Wang, Wang, Chen, Zhu, & Wang, 2008).

People with social anxiety disorder have also been found to show less accuracy in decoding the mental states of others (Washburn, Wilson, Roes, Rnic, & Harkness, 2016).

Further research has shown that the theory of mind changes with aging. This suggests a developmental lifespan process for this concept (Meinhardt-Injac, Daum, & Meinhardt, 2020).

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Developmental psychology has included many fascinating case studies and research findings. Here are two that we found particularly interesting.

1. Little Albert

Albert was exposed to several neutral stimuli including cotton wool, masks, a white rat, rabbit, monkey, and dog. Albert showed no initial fear to these stimuli.

When a loud noise was coupled with the initially neutral stimulus, Albert became very distressed and developed a phobia of the object, which extended to any similar object as well.

This experiment highlights the importance of environmental factors in the development of behaviors in children.

2. David Reimer

At the age of eight months, David Reimer lost his penis in a circumcision operation that went wrong. His worried parents consulted a psychologist, who advised them to raise David as a girl.

David’s young age meant he knew nothing about this. He went through the process of hormonal treatment and gender reassignment. At the age of 14, David found out the truth and wanted to reverse the gender reassignment process to become a boy again. He had always felt like a boy until this time, even though he was socialized and brought up as a girl (Colapinto, 2006).

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Contemporary theories of developmental psychology often encompass a holistic approach and a more positive approach to development.

Positive psychology has intersected with developmental disciplines in areas such as parenting, education, youth, and aging (Lomas et al., 2016).

These paradigms can all be grouped together under the umbrella of positive developmental psychology. This fresh approach to development focuses on the wellbeing aspects of development, while systematically bringing them together (Lomas, et al., 2016).

• Positive parenting is the approach to children’s wellbeing by focusing on the role of parents and caregivers (Latham, 1994).
• Positive education looks at flourishing in the context of school (Seligman, Ernst, Gillham, Reivich, & Linkins, 2009).
• Positive youth development is the productive and constructive focus on adolescence and early adulthood to enhance young people’s strengths and promote positive outcomes (Larson, 2000).
• Positive aging , also known as healthy aging, focuses on the positivity of aging as a healthy, normal stage of life (Vaillant, 2004).

Much of the empirical and theoretical work connected to positive developmental psychology has been going on for years, even before the emergence of positive psychology itself (Lomas et al., 2016).

We recommend this related article Applying Positive Psychology in Schools & Education: Your Ultimate Guide for further reading.

In the classroom, developmental psychology considers children’s psychological, emotional, and intellectual characteristics according to their developmental stage.

A report on the top 20 principles of psychology in the classroom, from pre-kindergarten to high school, was published by the American Psychological Association in 2015. The report also advised how teachers can respond to these principles in the classroom setting.

The top 5 principles and teacher responses are outlined in the table below.

There are many valuable resources to help you foster positive development no matter whether you’re working with young children, teenagers, or adults.

To help get you started, check out the following free resources from around our blog.

• Adopt A Growth Mindset This exercise helps clients recognize instances of fixed mindset in their thinking and actions and replace them with thoughts and behaviors more supportive of a growth mindset.
• Childhood Frustrations This worksheet provides a space for clients to document key challenges experienced during childhood, together with their emotional and behavioral responses.
• What I Want to Be This worksheet helps children identify behaviors and emotions they would like to display and select an opportunity in the future to behave in this ideal way.
• 17 Positive Psychology Exercises If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others enhance their wellbeing, this signature collection contains 17 validated positive psychology tools for practitioners. Use them to help others flourish and thrive.

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Earlier developmental psychology models and theories were focused on specific areas, such as attachment, psychosexual, cognitive, and social learning. Although informative, they did not take in differing perspectives and were fixed paradigms.

We’ve now come to understand that development is not fixed. Individual differences take place in development, and the factors that can affect development are many. It is ever changing throughout life.

The modern-day approach to developmental psychology includes sub-fields of positive psychology. It brings these differing disciplines together to form an overarching positive developmental psychology paradigm.

Developmental psychology has helped us gain a considerable understanding of children’s motivations, social and emotional contexts, and their strengths and weaknesses.

This knowledge is essential for educators to create rich learning environments for students to help them develop positively and ultimately flourish to their full potential.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free .

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• American Psychological Association. (2015). Top 20 principles from psychology for PREK-12 teaching and learning: Coalition for psychology in schools and education . Retrieved July 16, 2021, from https://www.apa.org/ed/schools/teaching-learning/top-twenty-principles.pdf
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Developmental Psychology

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Journal scope statement

Developmental Psychology ® publishes articles that significantly advance knowledge and theory about development across the life span. The journal focuses on seminal empirical contributions. The journal occasionally publishes exceptionally strong scholarly reviews and theoretical or methodological articles. Studies of any aspect of psychological development are appropriate, as are studies of the biological, social, and cultural factors that affect development.

The journal welcomes not only laboratory-based experimental studies but studies employing other rigorous methodologies, such as ethnographies, field research, and secondary analyses of large data sets. We especially seek submissions in new areas of inquiry and submissions that will address contradictory findings or controversies in the field as well as the generalizability of extant findings in new populations.

Although most articles in this journal address human development, studies of other species are appropriate if they have important implications for human development.

Submissions can consist of single manuscripts, proposed sections, or short reports.

Disclaimer: APA and the editors of Developmental Psychology ® assume no responsibility for statements and opinions advanced by the authors of its articles.

Equity, diversity, and inclusion

Developmental Psychology supports equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) in its practices. More information on these initiatives is available under EDI Efforts .

Open science

The APA Journals Program is committed to publishing transparent, rigorous research; improving reproducibility in science; and aiding research discovery. Open science practices vary per editor discretion. View the initiatives implemented by this journal .

Editor’s Choice

Each issue of Developmental Psychology will highlight one manuscript with the designation as an “ Editor’s Choice ” paper. Selection is based on the recommendations of the associate editors, based on the paper’s potential impact to the field, the distinction of expanding the contributors to, or the focus of, our science, or its discussion of an important future direction for science.

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Explore journal highlights : free article summaries, editor interviews and editorials, journal awards, mentorship opportunities, and more.

Prior to submission, please carefully read and follow the submission guidelines detailed below. Manuscripts that do not conform to the submission guidelines may be returned without review.

Submissions

Please submit manuscripts electronically through the Manuscript Submission Portal in Microsoft Word (.docx) or LaTex (.tex) as a zip file with an accompanied Portable Document Format (.pdf) of the manuscript file.

Prepare manuscripts according to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association using the 7 th edition. Manuscripts may be copyedited for bias-free language (see Chapter 5 of the Publication Manual ). APA Style and Grammar Guidelines for the 7 th edition are available.

Submit Manuscript

Koraly Pérez-Edgar The Pennsylvania State University

General correspondence may be directed to the editor's office .

Manuscripts should be the appropriate length for the material being presented. Manuscripts can vary from a maximum of 4,500 words for a brief report to 10,500 words for a larger research report to 15,000 words for a report containing multiple studies or comprehensive longitudinal studies. Please note that the total length includes the cover page, abstract, main manuscript text, references section, tables, and figures. Editors will decide on the appropriate length and may return a manuscript for revision before reviews if they think the paper is too long. Please make manuscripts as brief as possible. We have a strong preference for shorter papers.

Author contribution statements using CRediT

The APA Publication Manual (7th ed.) stipulates that “authorship encompasses…not only persons who do the writing but also those who have made substantial scientific contributions to a study.” In the spirit of transparency and openness, Developmental Psychology has adopted the Contributor Roles Taxonomy (CRediT) to describe each author's individual contributions to the work. CRediT offers authors the opportunity to share an accurate and detailed description of their diverse contributions to a manuscript.

Submitting authors will be asked to identify the contributions of all authors at initial submission according to this taxonomy. If the manuscript is accepted for publication, the CRediT designations will be published as an author contributions statement in the author note of the final article. All authors should have reviewed and agreed to their individual contribution(s) before submission.

CRediT includes 14 contributor roles, as described below:

• Conceptualization: Ideas; formulation or evolution of overarching research goals and aims.
• Data curation: Management activities to annotate (produce metadata), scrub data, and maintain research data (including software code, where it is necessary for interpreting the data itself) for initial use and later reuse.
• Formal analysis: Application of statistical, mathematical, computational, or other formal techniques to analyze or synthesize study data.
• Funding acquisition: Acquisition of the financial support for the project leading to this publication.
• Investigation: Conducting a research and investigation process, specifically performing the experiments, or data/evidence collection.
• Methodology: Development or design of methodology; creation of models.
• Project administration: Management and coordination responsibility for the research activity planning and execution.
• Resources: Provision of study materials, reagents, materials, patients, laboratory samples, animals, instrumentation, computing resources, or other analysis tools.
• Software: Programming, software development; designing computer programs; implementation of the computer code and supporting algorithms; testing of existing code components.
• Supervision: Oversight and leadership responsibility for the research activity planning and execution, including mentorship external to the core team.
• Validation: Verification, whether as a part of the activity or separate, of the overall replication/reproducibility of results/experiments and other research outputs.
• Visualization: Preparation, creation, and/or presentation of the published work, specifically visualization/data presentation.
• Writing—original draft: Preparation, creation, and/or presentation of the published work, specifically writing the initial draft (including substantive translation).
• Writing—review and editing: Preparation, creation and/or presentation of the published work by those from the original research group, specifically critical review, commentary, or revision—including pre- or post-publication stages.

Authors can claim credit for more than one contributor role, and the same role can be attributed to more than one author.

Public significance statements

Authors submitting manuscripts to the journal Developmental Psychology are now required to provide 2–3 brief sentences regarding the relevance or public health significance of their study or review described in their manuscript. This description should be included within the manuscript on the abstract/keywords page.

The public significance statement (similar to the Relevance section of NIH grant submissions) summarizes the significance of the study's findings for a public audience in one to three sentences (approximately 30–70 words long). It should be written in language that is easily understood by both professionals and members of the lay public. Please refer to the Guidance for Translational Abstracts and Public Significance Statements page to help you write these statements. This statement supports efforts to increase dissemination and usage of research findings by larger and more diverse audiences.

When an accepted paper is published, these sentences will be boxed beneath the abstract for easy accessibility. All such descriptions will also be published as part of the table of contents, as well as on the journal's web page. This policy is in keeping with efforts to increase dissemination and usage by larger and diverse audiences.

Facilitating manuscript review

In addition to email addresses, please supply mailing addresses, phone numbers, and fax numbers. Most correspondence will be handled by email. Keep a copy of the manuscript to guard against loss.

Masked review policy

This journal uses masked review for all submissions. Make every effort to see that the manuscript itself contains no clues to the authors' identity, including grant numbers, names of institutions providing IRB approval, self-citations, and links to online repositories for data, materials, code, or preregistrations (e.g., Create a View-only Link for a Project ). The submission letter should indicate the title of the manuscript, the authors' names and institutional affiliations, and the date the manuscript is submitted.

The first page of the manuscript should omit the authors' names and affiliations but should include the title of the manuscript and the date it is submitted. Author notes, acknowledgments, and footnotes containing information pertaining to the authors' identity or affiliations may be added on acceptance.

Methodology

Description of sample.

Authors should be sure to report the procedures for sample selection and recruitment. Major demographic characteristics should be reported, such as sex, age, socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, and, when possible and appropriate, disability status and sexual orientation. Even when such demographic characteristics are not analytic variables, they provide a more complete understanding of the sample and of the generalizability of the findings and are useful in future meta-analytic studies.

Authors should provide a justification that their sample size is appropriate beyond just citing convention in the literature. Justification could include a power analysis, a stopping rule, and/or some other type of valid justification.

Significance

For all study results, measures of both practical and statistical significance should be reported. The latter can involve either a standard error or an appropriate confidence interval. Practical significance can be reported using an effect size, a standardized regression coefficient, a factor loading, or an odds ratio.

Reliability

Manuscripts should include information regarding the establishment of interrater reliability when relevant, including the mechanisms used to establish reliability and the statistical verification of rater agreement and excluding the names of the trainers and the amount of personal contact with such individuals.

Journal Article Reporting Standards

Authors must adhere to the APA Style Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS) for quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. The standards offer ways to improve transparency in reporting to ensure that readers have the information necessary to evaluate the quality of the research and to facilitate collaboration and replication.

Transparency and openness

APA endorses the Transparency and Openness Promotion (TOP) Guidelines developed by a community working group in conjunction with the Center for Open Science ( Nosek et al. 2015 ). Empirical research, including meta-analyses, submitted to Developmental Psychology  must at least meet the “requirement” level for all aspects of research planning and reporting. Authors should include a subsection in the method section titled “Transparency and Openness.” This subsection should detail the efforts the authors have made to comply with the TOP Guidelines. 

For example:

• We report how we determined our sample size, all data exclusions (if any), all manipulations, and all measures in the study, and we follow JARS (Appelbaum et al., 2018). All data, analysis code, and research materials are available at [stable link to repository]. Data were analyzed using R, version 4.0.0 (R Core Team, 2020) and the package ggplot , version 3.2.1 (Wickham, 2016). This study’s design and its analysis were not pre-registered.

Data, materials, and code

Authors must state whether data, code, and study materials are posted to a trusted repository and, if so, where to access them, including their location and any limitations on use. If they cannot be made available, authors must state the legal or ethical reasons why they are not available. Trusted repositories adhere to policies that make data discoverable, accessible, usable, and preserved for the long term. Trusted repositories also assign unique and persistent identifiers. Recommended repositories include APA’s repository on the Open Science Framework (OSF), or authors can access a full list of other recommended repositories .

In a subsection titled “Transparency and Openness” at the end of the method section, specify whether and where the data and material will be available or note the legal or ethical reasons for not doing so. For submissions with quantitative or simulation analytic methods, state whether the study analysis code is posted to a trusted repository, and, if so, how to access it (or the legal or ethical reason why it is not available).

• All data have been made publicly available at the [trusted repository name] and can be accessed at [persistent URL or DOI].
• Materials and analysis code for this study are not available because [legal or ethical reason].
• The code behind this analysis/simulation has been made publicly available at the [trusted repository name] and can be accessed at [persistent URL or DOI].

Preregistration of studies and analysis plans

Preregistration of studies and specific hypotheses can be a useful tool for making strong theoretical claims. Likewise, preregistration of analysis plans can be useful for distinguishing confirmatory and exploratory analyses. Investigators are encouraged to preregister their studies and analysis plans prior to conducting the research via a publicly accessible registry system (e.g., OSF , ClinicalTrials.gov, or other trial registries in the WHO Registry Network). There are many available templates; for example, APA, the British Psychological Society, and the German Psychological Society partnered with the Leibniz Institute for Psychology and Center for Open Science to create Preregistration Standards for Quantitative Research in Psychology (Bosnjak et al., 2022).

Articles must state whether or not any work was preregistered and, if so, where to access the preregistration. If any aspect of the study is preregistered, include the registry link in the method section. Preregistrations must be available to reviewers; authors may submit a masked copy via stable link or supplemental material. Links in the method section should be replaced with an identifiable copy on acceptance.

• This study’s design was preregistered; see [STABLE LINK OR DOI].
• This study’s design and hypotheses were preregistered; see [STABLE LINK OR DOI].
• This study’s analysis plan was preregistered; see [STABLE LINK OR DOI].
• This study was not preregistered.

Replications and Registered Reports

Developmental Psychology publishes direct replications. Submissions should include “A Replication of XX Study” in the subtitle of the manuscript as well as in the abstract.

Developmental Psychology also publishes Registered Reports. Registered Reports require a two-step review process. The first step is the submission of the registration manuscript. This is a partial manuscript that includes hypotheses, rationale for the study, experimental design, and methods. The partial manuscript will be reviewed for rigor and methodological approach.

If the partial manuscript is accepted, this amounts to provisional acceptance of the full report regardless of the outcome of the study. The full manuscript will be reviewed for adherence to the preregistered design (deviations should be reported in the manuscript).

Manuscript preparation

Prepare manuscripts according to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association using the 7th edition. Manuscripts may be copyedited for bias-free language (see Chapter 5 of the Publication Manual ).

Review APA's Journal Manuscript Preparation Guidelines before submitting your article.

Double-space all copy. Other formatting instructions, as well as instructions on preparing tables, figures, references, metrics, and abstracts, appear in the Manual . Additional guidance on APA Style is available on the APA Style website .

Below are additional instructions regarding the preparation of display equations, computer code, and tables.

Display equations

We strongly encourage you to use MathType (third-party software) or Equation Editor 3.0 (built into pre-2007 versions of Word) to construct your equations, rather than the equation support that is built into Word 2007 and Word 2010. Equations composed with the built-in Word 2007/Word 2010 equation support are converted to low-resolution graphics when they enter the production process and must be rekeyed by the typesetter, which may introduce errors.

To construct your equations with MathType or Equation Editor 3.0:

• Go to the Text section of the Insert tab and select Object.
• Select MathType or Equation Editor 3.0 in the drop-down menu.

If you have an equation that has already been produced using Microsoft Word 2007 or 2010 and you have access to the full version of MathType 6.5 or later, you can convert this equation to MathType by clicking on MathType Insert Equation. Copy the equation from Microsoft Word and paste it into the MathType box. Verify that your equation is correct, click File, and then click Update. Your equation has now been inserted into your Word file as a MathType Equation.

Use Equation Editor 3.0 or MathType only for equations or for formulas that cannot be produced as Word text using the Times or Symbol font.

Computer code

Because altering computer code in any way (e.g., indents, line spacing, line breaks, page breaks) during the typesetting process could alter its meaning, we treat computer code differently from the rest of your article in our production process. To that end, we request separate files for computer code.

In online supplemental material

We request that runnable source code be included as supplemental material to the article. For more information, visit Supplementing Your Article With Online Material .

In the text of the article

If you would like to include code in the text of your published manuscript, please submit a separate file with your code exactly as you want it to appear, using Courier New font with a type size of 8 points. We will make an image of each segment of code in your article that exceeds 40 characters in length. (Shorter snippets of code that appear in text will be typeset in Courier New and run in with the rest of the text.) If an appendix contains a mix of code and explanatory text, please submit a file that contains the entire appendix, with the code keyed in 8-point Courier New.

Use Word's insert table function when you create tables. Using spaces or tabs in your table will create problems when the table is typeset and may result in errors.

Academic writing and English language editing services

Authors who feel that their manuscript may benefit from additional academic writing or language editing support prior to submission are encouraged to seek out such services at their host institutions, engage with colleagues and subject matter experts, and/or consider several vendors that offer discounts to APA authors .

Please note that APA does not endorse or take responsibility for the service providers listed. It is strictly a referral service.

Use of such service is not mandatory for publication in an APA journal. Use of one or more of these services does not guarantee selection for peer review, manuscript acceptance, or preference for publication in any APA journal.

Submitting supplemental materials

APA can place supplemental materials online, available via the published article in the PsycArticles ® database. Please see Supplementing Your Article With Online Material for more details.

Abstract and keywords

The abstract must include major demographic characteristics about the sample (e.g., age, gender, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status) so the reader can judge the degree to which the sample reflects the diversity, equity, and inclusion of participants. The abstract should not exceed a maximum of 250 words and typed on a separate page. After the abstract, please supply up to six keywords or brief phrases.

List references in alphabetical order. Each listed reference should be cited in text, and each text citation should be listed in the references section.

Examples of basic reference formats:

Journal article

McCauley, S. M., & Christiansen, M. H. (2019). Language learning as language use: A cross-linguistic model of child language development. Psychological Review , 126 (1), 1–51. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000126

Authored book

Brown, L. S. (2018). Feminist therapy (2nd ed.). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000092-000

Chapter in an edited book

Balsam, K. F., Martell, C. R., Jones. K. P., & Safren, S. A. (2019). Affirmative cognitive behavior therapy with sexual and gender minority people. In G. Y. Iwamasa & P. A. Hays (Eds.), Culturally responsive cognitive behavior therapy: Practice and supervision (2nd ed., pp. 287–314). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000119-012

Software/Code citation

Viechtbauer, W. (2010). Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package.  Journal of Statistical Software , 36(3), 1–48. https://www.jstatsoft.org/v36/i03/

Wickham, H. et al., (2019). Welcome to the tidyverse. Journal of Open Source Software, 4 (43), 1686, https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.01686

All data, program code, and other methods must be cited in the text and listed in the references section.

Data set citation

Alegria, M., Jackson, J. S., Kessler, R. C., & Takeuchi, D. (2016). Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiology Surveys (CPES), 2001–2003 [Data set]. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR20240.v8

Preferred formats for graphics files are TIFF and JPG, and preferred format for vector-based files is EPS. Graphics downloaded or saved from web pages are not acceptable for publication. Multipanel figures (i.e., figures with parts labeled a, b, c, d, etc.) should be assembled into one file. When possible, please place symbol legends below the figure instead of to the side.

• All color line art and halftones: 300 DPI
• Black and white line tone and gray halftone images: 600 DPI

Line weights

• Color (RGB, CMYK) images: 2 pixels
• Grayscale images: 4 pixels
• Stroke weight: 0.5 points

APA offers authors the option to publish their figures online in color without the costs associated with print publication of color figures.

The same caption will appear on both the online (color) and print (black and white) versions. To ensure that the figure can be understood in both formats, authors should add alternative wording (e.g., “the red (dark gray) bars represent”) as needed.

For authors who prefer their figures to be published in color both in print and online, original color figures can be printed in color at the editor's and publisher's discretion provided the author agrees to pay:

• $900 for one figure
• An additional $600 for the second figure
• An additional $450 for each subsequent figure

Permissions

Authors of accepted papers must obtain and provide to the editor on final acceptance all necessary permissions to reproduce in print and electronic form any copyrighted work, including test materials (or portions thereof), photographs, and other graphic images (including those used as stimuli in experiments).

On advice of counsel, APA may decline to publish any image whose copyright status is unknown.

• Download Permissions Alert Form (PDF, 13KB)

Publication policies

For full details on publication policies, including use of Artificial Intelligence tools, please see APA Publishing Policies .

APA policy prohibits an author from submitting the same manuscript for concurrent consideration by two or more publications.

See also APA Journals ® Internet Posting Guidelines .

APA requires authors to reveal any possible conflict of interest in the conduct and reporting of research (e.g., financial interests in a test or procedure, funding by pharmaceutical companies for drug research).

• Download Full Disclosure of Interests Form (PDF, 41KB)

In light of changing patterns of scientific knowledge dissemination, APA requires authors to provide information on prior dissemination of the data and narrative interpretations of the data/research appearing in the manuscript (e.g., if some or all were presented at a conference or meeting, posted on a listserv, shared on a website, including academic social networks like ResearchGate, etc.). This information (2–4 sentences) must be provided as part of the author note.

Ethical Principles

It is a violation of APA Ethical Principles to publish "as original data, data that have been previously published" (Standard 8.13).

In addition, APA Ethical Principles specify that "after research results are published, psychologists do not withhold the data on which their conclusions are based from other competent professionals who seek to verify the substantive claims through reanalysis and who intend to use such data only for that purpose, provided that the confidentiality of the participants can be protected and unless legal rights concerning proprietary data preclude their release" (Standard 8.14).

APA expects authors to adhere to these standards. Specifically, APA expects authors to have their data available throughout the editorial review process and for at least 5 years after the date of publication.

Authors are required to state in writing that they have complied with APA ethical standards in the treatment of their sample, human or animal, or to describe the details of treatment.

• Download Certification of Compliance With APA Ethical Principles Form (PDF, 26KB)

The APA Ethics Office provides the full Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct electronically on its website in HTML, PDF, and Word format. You may also request a copy by emailing or calling the APA Ethics Office (202-336-5930). You may also read "Ethical Principles," December 1992, American Psychologist , Vol. 47, pp. 1597–1611.

Other information

See APA’s Publishing Policies page for more information on publication policies, including information on author contributorship and responsibilities of authors, author name changes after publication, the use of generative artificial intelligence, funder information and conflict-of-interest disclosures, duplicate publication, data publication and reuse, and preprints.

Visit the Journals Publishing Resource Center for more resources for writing, reviewing, and editing articles for publishing in APA journals.

Koraly Pérez-Edgar, PhD The Pennsylvania State University, United States

Associate editors

Irma Arteaga, PhD University of Missouri, United States

Sheretta T. Butler-Barnes, PhD Washington University in St. Louis, United States

Christopher Beam, PhD University of Southern California, United States

Peter Bos, PhD University of Leiden, The Netherlands 

Natalie Brito, PhD New York University, United States 

Lucas Butler, PhD University of Maryland, United States

Gustavo Carlo, PhD University of California, Irvine, United States

Elisabeth Conradt, PhD University of Utah, United States

Timothy Curby, PhD George Mason University, United States

Judith Danovitch, PhD University of Louisville, United States

John Franchak, PhD University of California, Riverside, United States

Emily Fyfe, PhD Indiana University, United States

Melinda Gonzales Backen, PhD Florida State University, United States

Wendy Gordon, PhD Auburn University, United States

Noa Gueron-Sela, PhD Ben-Gurion University, Israel

Elizabeth Gunderson, PhD Indiana University, United States

Amanda Guyer, PhD University of California, Davis, United States

Larisa Solomon, PhD Columbia University, United States

Lana Karasik, PhD City University of New York, United States

Melissa Kibbe, PhD Boston University, United States

Elizabeth Kiel, PhD Miami University of Ohio, United States

Su Yeong Kim, PhD University of Texas, Austin, United States

Diana Leyva, PhD University of Pittsburgh, United States

Jennifer McDermott, PhD University of Massachusetts, Amherst, United States

Kristine Marceau, PhD Purdue University, United States

Julie Markant, PhD Tulane University, United States

Kalina Michalska, PhD University of California, Riverside, United States

Francisco Palermo, PhD University of Missouri, United States

Carlomagno Panlilio, PhD The Pennsylvania State University, United States

Mikko Peltola, PhD Tampere University, Finland

Gavin Price, PhD Exeter University, United Kingdom

Joanna Williams, PhD Rutgers University, United States

Qing Zhou, PhD University of California, Berkeley, United States

Consulting editors

Melissa Barnett, PhD University of Arizona, United States

Martha Ann Bell, PhD Virginia Tech, United States

Deon Benton, PhD Vanderbilt University, United States

Tashauna Blankenship, PhD University of Massachusetts, Boston, United States

David Bridgett, PhD Northern Illinois University, United States

Rebecca Brooker, PhD Texas A&M University, United States

Samantha Brown, PhD Colorado State University, United States

Claire Cameron, PhD University at Buffalo, United States

Carlos Cardenas-Iniguez, PhD University of Southern California, United States

Rona Carter, PhD, LLP, RYT University of Michigan, United States

Stephen Chen, PhD Wellesley College, United States

Elizabeth Davis, PhD University of California, Riverside, United States

Leah Doane, PhD Arizona State University, United States

Jessica Dollar, PhD University of North Carolina, Greensboro, United States

Robert Duncan, PhD Purdue University, United States

Ari Eason, PhD University of California, Berkeley, United States

Katie Ehrlich, PhD University of Georgia, United States

Paola Escudero, PhD Western Sydney University, Australia

Caitlin Fausey, PhD University of Oregon, United States

Gregory M. Fosco, PhD The Pennsylvania State University, United States

Nicole Gardner-Neblett, PhD University of Michigan, United States

Erica Glasper, PhD Ohio State University, United States

Selin Gulgoz, PhD Fordham University, United States

Ernest Hodges, PhD St. John’s University, United States

Adam Hoffman, PhD Cornell University, United States

Stefanie Höhl, PhD University of Vienna, Austria

Caroline Hornburg, PhD Virginia Tech, United States

Yang Hou, PhD University of Kentucky, United States

Marina Kalashnikova, PhD Basque Center on Cognition, Brain, and Language, Spain

Heather Kirkorian, PhD University of Wisconsin, Madison, United States

Olga Kornienko, PhD George Mason University, United States

Deborah Laible, PhD Lehigh University, United States

Jonathan Lane, PhD Vanderbilt University, United States

Tessa Lansu, PhD Radboud University, Netherlands

Kathryn Leech, PhD University of North Carolina, United States

Ryan Lei, PhD Haverford College, United States

Jeffrey Liew, PhD Texas A&M University, United States

Betty Lin, PhD University at Albany, United States

Eric Lindsey, PhD Penn State Berks, United States

Jessica Lougheed, PhD University of British Columbia, Okanagan, Canada

Alexandra Main, PhD University of California, Merced, United States

Henrike Moll, PhD University of Southern California, United States

Santiago Morales, PhD University of Southern California, United States

Dianna Murray-Close, PhD University of Vermont, United States

Shaylene Nancekivell, PhD University of Manitoba, Canada

Justin Parent, PhD Brown University, United States

Livio Provenzi, PhD IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Italy

Laura Quiñones-Camacho, PhD University of Texas, Austin, United States

Rachel Romeo, PhD, CCC-SLP University of Maryland, United States

Samuel Ronfard, EdD University of Toronto, Canada

Kathleen Rudasill, PhD Virginia Commonwealth University, United States

Adena Schachner, PhD University of California, San Diego, United States

Yishan Shen, PhD Texas State University, United States

Cara Streit, PhD University of New Mexico, United States

Cin Cin Tan, PhD University of Toledo, United States

Rachel Thibodeau-Nielson, PhD University of Missouri, United States

Sho Tsuji, PhD University of Tokyo, Japan

Yuuko Uchikoshi, EdD University of California, Davis, United States

Carlos Valiente, PhD Arizona State University, United States

Nicholas Wagner, PhD Boston University, United States

Jinjing Wang, PhD Rutgers University, United States

Jun Wang, PhD Texas A&M University, United States

Christina Weiland, EdD University of Michigan, United States

Eric Wilkey, PhD Louisiana State University, United States

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Special issue of the APA journal Developmental Psychology, Vol. 56, No. 3, March 2020. Articles discuss the impact of emotion-related socialization behaviors on children’s emotion, self-regulation, and developmental outcomes.

Special issue of the APA journal Developmental Psychology, Vol. 55, No. 9, September 2019. The issue is intended to present and highlight examples of innovative recent approaches and thinking to a range of questions about emotional development and to inspire new directions for future research.

Special issue of the APA journal Developmental Psychology, Vol. 53, No. 11, November 2017. The articles examine identity in developmental stages ranging from early childhood to young adulthood, and represent samples from 5 different countries.

Special issue of the APA journal Developmental Psychology, Vol. 49, No. 3, March 2013. The articles pose important questions concerning how children learn from others, what the characteristic signatures of social learning might be, and how this learning changes over time.

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APA endorses the Transparency and Openness Promotion (TOP) Guidelines by a community working group in conjunction with the Center for Open Science ( Nosek et al. 2015 ). The TOP Guidelines cover eight fundamental aspects of research planning and reporting that can be followed by journals and authors at three levels of compliance.

• Level 1: Disclosure—The article must disclose whether or not the materials are posted to a trusted repository.
• Level 2: Requirement—The article must share materials via a trusted repository when legally and ethically permitted (or disclose the legal and/or ethical restriction when not permitted).
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At a minimum, empirical research, including meta-analyses, submitted to Developmental Psychology must, at a minimum, meet Level 2 (Requirement) for all aspects of research planning and reporting. Authors should include a subsection in their methods description titled “Transparency and Openness.” This subsection should detail the efforts the authors have made to comply with the TOP Guidelines.

The list below summarizes the minimal TOP requirements of the journal. Please refer to the TOP guidelines for details, and contact the editor (Koraly Pérez-Edgar, PhD) with any further questions. Authors must share data, materials, and code via trusted repositories (e.g., APA’s repository on the Open Science Framework (OSF)). Trusted repositories adhere to policies that make data discoverable, accessible, usable, and preserved for the long term. Trusted repositories also assign unique and persistent identifiers.

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Developmental Psychology Research Methods

Jose Luis Pelaez Inc/Getty Images 

Cross-Sectional Research Methods

Longitudinal research methods, correlational research methods, experimental research methods.

There are many different developmental psychology research methods, including cross-sectional, longitudinal, correlational, and experimental. Each has its own specific advantages and disadvantages. The one that a scientist chooses depends largely on the aim of the study and the nature of the phenomenon being studied.

Research design provides a standardized framework to test a hypothesis and evaluate whether the hypothesis is correct, incorrect, or inconclusive. Even if the hypothesis is untrue, the research can often provide insights that may prove valuable or move research in an entirely new direction.

At a Glance

In order to study developmental psychology, researchers utilize a number of different research methods. Some involve looking at different cross-sections of a population, while others look at how participants change over time. In other cases, researchers look at how whether certain variables appear to have a relationship with one another. In order to determine if there is a cause-and-effect relationship, however, psychologists much conduct experimental research.

Learn more about each of these different types of developmental psychology research methods, including when they are used and what they can reveal about human development.

Cross-sectional research involves looking at different groups of people with specific characteristics.

For example, a researcher might evaluate a group of young adults and compare the corresponding data from a group of older adults.

The benefit of this type of research is that it can be done relatively quickly; the research data is gathered at the same point in time. The disadvantage is that the research aims to make a direct association between a cause and an effect. This is not always so easy. In some cases, there may be confounding factors that contribute to the effect.

To this end, a cross-sectional study can suggest the odds of an effect occurring both in terms of the absolute risk (the odds of something happening over a period of time) and the relative risk (the odds of something happening in one group compared to another).  

Longitudinal research involves studying the same group of individuals over an extended period of time.

Data is collected at the outset of the study and gathered repeatedly through the course of study. In some cases, longitudinal studies can last for several decades or be open-ended. One such example is the Terman Study of the Gifted , which began in the 1920s and followed 1528 children for over 80 years.

The benefit of this longitudinal research is that it allows researchers to look at changes over time. By contrast, one of the obvious disadvantages is cost. Because of the expense of a long-term study, they tend to be confined to a smaller group of subjects or a narrower field of observation.

Challenges of Longitudinal Research

While revealing, longitudinal studies present a few challenges that make them more difficult to use when studying developmental psychology and other topics.

• Longitudinal studies are difficult to apply to a larger population.
• Another problem is that the participants can often drop out mid-study, shrinking the sample size and relative conclusions.
• Moreover, if certain outside forces change during the course of the study (including economics, politics, and science), they can influence the outcomes in a way that significantly skews the results.

For example, in Lewis Terman's longitudinal study, the correlation between IQ and achievement was blunted by such confounding forces as the Great Depression and World War II (which limited educational attainment) and gender politics of the 1940s and 1950s (which limited a woman's professional prospects).

Correlational research aims to determine if one variable has a measurable association with another.

In this type of non-experimental study, researchers look at relationships between the two variables but do not introduce the variables themselves. Instead, they gather and evaluate the available data and offer a statistical conclusion.

For example, the researchers may look at whether academic success in elementary school leads to better-paying jobs in the future. While the researchers can collect and evaluate the data, they do not manipulate any of the variables in question.

A correlational study can be appropriate and helpful if you cannot manipulate a variable because it is impossible, impractical, or unethical.

For example, imagine that a researcher wants to determine if living in a noisy environment makes people less efficient in the workplace. It would be impractical and unreasonable to artificially inflate the noise level in a working environment. Instead, researchers might collect data and then look for correlations between the variables of interest.

Limitations of Correlational Research

Correlational research has its limitations. While it can identify an association, it does not necessarily suggest a cause for the effect. Just because two variables have a relationship does not mean that changes in one will affect a change in the other.

Unlike correlational research, experimentation involves both the manipulation and measurement of variables . This model of research is the most scientifically conclusive and commonly used in medicine, chemistry, psychology, biology, and sociology.

Experimental research uses manipulation to understand cause and effect in a sampling of subjects. The sample is comprised of two groups: an experimental group in whom the variable (such as a drug or treatment) is introduced and a control group in whom the variable is not introduced.

Deciding the sample groups can be done in a number of ways:

• Population sampling, in which the subjects represent a specific population
• Random selection , in which subjects are chosen randomly to see if the effects of the variable are consistently achieved

Challenges in Experimental Resarch

While the statistical value of an experimental study is robust, it may be affected by confirmation bias . This is when the investigator's desire to publish or achieve an unambiguous result can skew the interpretations, leading to a false-positive conclusion.

One way to avoid this is to conduct a double-blind study in which neither the participants nor researchers are aware of which group is the control. A double-blind randomized controlled trial (RCT) is considered the gold standard of research.

What This Means For You

There are many different types of research methods that scientists use to study developmental psychology and other areas. Knowing more about how each of these methods works can give you a better understanding of what the findings of psychological research might mean for you.

Capili B. Cross-sectional studies .  Am J Nurs . 2021;121(10):59-62. doi:10.1097/01.NAJ.0000794280.73744.fe

Kesmodel US. Cross-sectional studies - what are they good for? .  Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand . 2018;97(4):388–393. doi:10.1111/aogs.13331

Noordzij M, van Diepen M, Caskey FC, Jager KJ. Relative risk versus absolute risk: One cannot be interpreted without the other . Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation. 2017;32(S2):ii13-ii18. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfw465

Kell HJ, Wai J. Terman Study of the Gifted . In: Frey B, ed.  The SAGE Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Measurement, and Evaluation . Vol. 4. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.; 2018. doi:10.4135/9781506326139.n691

Curtis EA, Comiskey C, Dempsey O. Importance and use of correlational research .  Nurse Res . 2016;23(6):20–25. doi:10.7748/nr.2016.e1382

Misra S.  Randomized double blind placebo control studies, the "Gold Standard" in intervention based studies .  Indian J Sex Transm Dis AIDS . 2012;33(2):131-4. doi:10.4103/2589-0557.102130

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Navigating an Unforeseen Pathway

This article describes a career path from a non-traditional STEM field to an impactful career in developmental science. It acknowledges the unique experiences of an African American woman growing up in a northeastern urban center at the end of World War II, during which the experiences of Blacks were still heavily impacted by policies and practices representing highly significant racial inequities requiring individual, family, and collective coping. My human development theory, phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST), provides a framing device for describing both high vulnerability situations and resilience expressions linked to particular contextual experiences including significant challenges and, as well, unexpected sources of support. Experiences had within my family of origin, civil rights activities, and diverse learning environments afforded supports, inferred mortal attacks, and unexpected opportunities. Ongoing are challenges and stress inferred to be associated with my committed positionality that acknowledges all children's humanity and particularly the persistent situations of youth and communities of color.

Prenatal Substance Exposure

This is an evaluative review of the field of prenatal substance exposure, with a focus on neurobiological and behavioral outcomes from infancy to young adulthood. We provide an overall evaluation of the state of the field and comment on current conceptual and methodological issues in need of attention. Although there are many studies of prenatal substance exposure, developmental frameworks that incorporate and reflect the lived experiences of children and families have seldom been employed in this field. In addition, although there are some common effects (e.g., on fetal growth) between major substances, there are also unique effects. Thus, we discuss the role of specific substances but note that polysubstance exposure is common, and models and methods used to date may not be sufficient to advance understanding of coexposure or polyexposure effects. We discuss these conceptual and methodological weaknesses and provide suggestions for future directions.

Neurodevelopment of Attention, Learning, and Memory Systems in Infancy

Understanding how we come to make sense of our environments requires understanding both how we take in new information and how we flexibly process and store that information in memory for subsequent retrieval. In other words, infant cognitive development research is best served by studies that probe infant attention as well as infant learning and memory development. In this article, we first review what is known about infant attention and what is known about a selection of learning systems available in infancy. Then, we review what is known about the interactions between attention and these systems, focusing on infancy when possible but highlighting relevant child and adult literatures when infant research is yet scarce. Finally, we close by proposing a path forward, which we believe will result in a clearer understanding of the interactions between attention and memory that govern infant learning.

The Representation of Third-Party Helping Interactions in Infancy

Despite numerous findings on the sophisticated inferences that human infants draw from observing third-party helping interactions, currently there is no theoretical account of how infants come to understand such events in the first place. After reviewing the available evidence in infants, we describe an account of how human adults understand helping actions. According to this mature concept, helping is a second-order, goal-directed action aiming to increase the utility of another agent (the Helpee) via reducing the cost, or increasing the reward, of the Helpee's own goal-directed action. We then identify the cognitive prerequisites for conceiving helping in this way and ask whether these are available to infants in the interpretation of helping interactions. In contrast to the mature concept, we offer two simpler alternatives that may underlie the early understanding of helping actions: ( a ) helping as enabling, which requires second-order goal attribution but no utility calculus, and ( b ) helping as joint action, which requires efficiency (i.e., utility) evaluation without demanding second-order goal attribution. We evaluate the evidence supporting these accounts, derive unique predictions from them, and describe what developmental pathway toward the mature concept they envisage. We conclude the article by outlining further open questions that the developmental literature on the interpretation of helping interactions has not yet addressed.

A Developmental Social Neuroscience Perspective on Infant Autism Interventions

Research on early biomarkers and behavioral precursors of autism has led to interventions initiated during the infant period that could potentially change the course of infant brain and behavioral development in autism. This article integrates neuroscience and clinical perspectives to explore how knowledge of infant brain and behavioral development can inform the design of infant autism interventions. Focusing on infants ≤12 months, we review studies on behavioral precursors of autism and their neural correlates and clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of infant autism interventions. We then consider how contemporary developmental social neuroscience theories of autism can shed light on the therapeutic strategies used in infant autism interventions and offer a new perspective that emphasizes improving child outcome and well-being by enhancing infant–environment fit. Finally, we offer recommendations for future research that incorporates brain-based measures to inform individualized approaches to intervention and discuss ethical issues raised by infant autism interventions. Readers are referred to Supplemental Table 1 for a glossary of terms used in this article.

Intervening Early: Socioemotional Interventions Targeting the Parent–Infant Relationship

Responsive, nurturing parenting helps infants and young children develop secure, organized attachments as well as adequate self-regulatory capabilities. However, when parents experience challenges, they often have difficulty providing responsive, nurturing care. In this article, we provide an overview of interventions that have been developed to enhance parental responsiveness, and we discuss in detail three interventions that have particularly strong evidence of effectiveness. For each intervention, we describe the intervention's purported mechanism and the evidence supporting its engagement as well as proximal and distal intervention outcomes. The three interventions described vary in duration from 6 to 32 sessions on average and are variously implemented in the home or office. Nonetheless, all three interventions have strong evidence of effectiveness in engaging the intervention mechanism of parental responsiveness and show impressive effects on children's attachment and self-regulatory capabilities. We also discuss challenges in disseminating interventions in the community.

Growing Up, Learning Race: An Integration of Research on Cognitive Mechanisms and Socialization in Context

In the United States, race is a critical factor in determining how children experience and navigate their social worlds. Developmental scientists have examined the complexities and nuances of how children develop an understanding of what race means for them and others as well as their attitudes toward people of other racial groups. We provide an overview of the literature on two approaches to understanding children's racial learning—sociocognitive approaches, which focus on various aspects of children's understanding of, beliefs about, and attitudes toward race and racial groups, and socialization perspectives, which examine the messages that socialization agents transmit to children about race. Throughout, we highlight the ways in which the persistence of structural and interpersonal racism in the United States forms the background context for children's racial learning.

Social Identities and Intersectionality: A Conversation About the What and the How of Development

Research on the development of social identities in early and middle childhood has largely focused on gender; increasingly, however, theory and research have addressed the development of ethnic/racial, social class, sexual, and immigrant identities. Moreover, it is assumed that individuals’ thinking about and articulating of the intersectionality between their social identities emerge in adolescence and young adulthood, but a growing body of work has shown that minoritized children conceptualize their intersectional identities by middle childhood. This article reviews that work and addresses how interdisciplinary scholarship and quantitative and qualitative methodologies can deepen our understanding of the development of social identities and intersectionality. We take a contextual approach to investigate how relational and cultural contexts contour the socialization of social and intersectional identities. Most of our review focuses on theory and research in the United States; however, because we aim to consider immigrant identity, we also include theory and research on how immigrant families and communities help minoritized children and youth navigate their identities in schools and communities and cope with discrimination.

Children's Acquisition and Application of Norms

All human societies are permeated by collectively shared entities that govern daily social interactions and promote coordination and cooperation: norms. While the study of norm development is not new to developmental psychology, it has only recently been the target of an interdisciplinary wave of research using new methodologies and (often) complementary theoretical accounts to describe and explain the origins and potentially species-unique aspects of human norm psychology. Here we review recent developmental research showing that young children swiftly acquire and infer norms in a variety of social contexts. Moreover, children actively enforce these norms, even as unaffected bystanders, when third parties do things the wrong way. This research suggests that the foundations of human norm psychology can be found in early childhood. Deeper insights into the ontogenetic roots of norm psychology may contribute to understanding the evolutionary emergence of human cooperation and its maintenance in the contemporary world.

A Rational Account of Cognitive Control Development in Childhood

Cognitive control is defined as a set of processes required for the organization of goal-directed thoughts and actions. It is linked to success throughout life including health, wealth, and social capital. How to support the development of cognitive control is therefore an intensively discussed topic. Progress in understanding how this critical life skill can be optimally scaffolded in long-lasting ways has been disappointing. I argue that this effort has been hampered by the predominant perspective that cognitive control is a competence or ability, the development of which is driven by predetermined maturational sequences. I propose that this traditional view needs to be overhauled in light of a growing body of evidence suggesting that cognitive control allocation is a both highly dynamic and rational process subject to cost–benefit analyses from early in development. I discuss the ramifications of shifting our perspective on cognitive control mechanisms in relation to how we design interventions. I close by spelling out new avenues for scientific inquiry.

Two-Hit Model of Behavioral Inhibition and Anxiety

Four decades of research have examined the antecedents and consequences of behavioral inhibition (BI), a temperament profile associated with heightened reactivity to sensory stimuli in infancy, reticence toward social cues in childhood, and the later emergence of social anxiety in adolescence. This review proposes that a two-hit model can supplement prior work to better understand these developmental pathways. Specifically, time limited experiences (“hits”) centered in infancy and adolescence stress idiosyncratic BI-linked processes that uniquely trigger the developmental pathway from temperament to disorder. To illustrate, we focus on caregiver distress in infancy (including fetal development), social reorientation in adolescence, and their impact on malleable attentional and cognitive systems. These are developmental challenges and processes that go to the heart of the BI phenotype. Finally, we note open questions in this conceptual model, potential caveats, and needed future research.

Developmental Neuroimaging of Cognitive Flexibility: Update and Future Directions

Cognitive flexibility, or the ability to mentally switch between tasks according to changing environmental demands, supports optimal life outcomes, making it an important executive function to study across development. Here we review the literature examining the development of cognitive flexibility, with an emphasis on studies using task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The neuroimaging literature suggests that key brain regions important for cognitive flexibility include the inferior frontal junction and regions within the midcingulo-insular network, including the insular and dorsal anterior cingulate cortices. We further discuss challenges surrounding studying cognitive flexibility during neurodevelopment, including inconsistent terminology, the diversity of fMRI task paradigms, difficulties with isolating cognitive flexibility from other executive functions, and accounting for developmental changes in cognitive strategy. Future directions include assessing how developmental changes in brain network dynamics enable cognitive flexibility and examining potential modulators of cognitive flexibility including physical activity and bilingualism.

A Neuroecosocial Perspective on Adolescent Development

Adolescence is a period of life that encompasses biological maturation and profound change in social roles. It is also a period associated with the onset of mental health problems. The field of developmental cognitive neuroscience has advanced our understanding of the development of the brain within its immediate social and cultural context. In a time of rising rates of mental health problems among adolescents across the globe, it is important to understand how the wider societal, structural, and cultural contexts of young people are impacting their biological and social-cognitive maturation. In this article, we review the landscape of youth mental health and brain development during adolescence and consider the potential role of brain research in understanding the effects of current social determinants of adolescent mental health, including socioeconomic inequality, city living, and eco-anxiety about the climate crisis.

Poverty, Brain Development, and Mental Health: Progress, Challenges, and Paths Forward

Poverty is associated with changes in brain development and elevates the risk for psychopathology in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Although the field is rapidly expanding, there are methodological challenges that raise questions about the validity of current findings. These challenges include the interrelated issues of reliability, effect size, interindividual heterogeneity, and replicability. To address these issues, we propose a multipronged approach that spans short-, medium-, and long-term solutions, including changes to data pipelines along with more comprehensive data acquisition of environment, brain, and mental health. Additional suggestions are to use open science approaches, more robust statistical analyses, and replication testing. Furthermore, we propose increased integration between advanced analytical approaches using large samples and neuroscience models in intervention research to enhance the interpretability of findings. Collectively, these approaches will expand the application of neuroimaging findings and provide a foundation for eventual policy changes designed to improve conditions for children in poverty.

The Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD): Studying Development from Infancy to Adulthood

The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD) is a comprehensive study of human development that has followed participants from birth ( N = 1,364) to age 26 ( N = 814). Observations, diagnostic procedures, standardized tests, and questionnaires were used to measure five developmental contexts (early care and education, home, school, out of school, and neighborhoods) and three developmental domains (social–emotional, cognitive–academic, and physical–biological). Measures were repeated over time so that stability, change, and growth trajectories of both contexts and developmental domains could be studied. The goals of this review are threefold: ( a ) to acquaint readers with the depth and breadth of measures available in this public data set, ( b ) to provide an overview of longitudinal findings that extend the SECCYD to the end of high school and age 26, and ( c ) to highlight promising areas for future research.

Bridging the Divide: Tackling Tensions Between Life-Course Epidemiology and Causal Inference

Life-course epidemiologists have developed sophisticated models for how exposures throughout life—from gestation to old age—shape health, sometimes years after the exposure occurred. The field, however, has been slow to adopt robust causal inference methods, including quasi-experimental designs. This reflects, at least in part, a tension between ( a ) study designs that maximize our ability to make causal claims and ( b ) exposure operationalizations that correspond with life-course theories. In this narrative review, we attempt to mitigate that tension. We first discuss the unique challenges for causal inference in life-course epidemiology. We then outline how quasi-experimental methods have already contributed to testing life-course theories, as well as the limitations of the quasi-experimental methods therein. We close with solutions that bridge the gap between modern developments in causal inference and life-course epidemiology, including redefined estimands to maximize public health impact; marginal structural and structural nested models; longitudinal instrumental variables approaches; leveraging new data linkages, such as with detailed residential histories; and triangulation across methods, including adopting a pluralistic approach to causal inference.

The Functioning of Offspring of Depressed Parents: Current Status, Unresolved Issues, and Future Directions

Although the intergenerational transmission of risk for depression is well documented, the mechanisms and moderators involved in this transmission of risk from depressed parents to their offspring are not clear. In this review, we discuss the progress that has been made over the past two decades in studying offspring of depressed parents and describe the maladaptive characteristics of these offspring in a diverse range of domains, including clinical, cognitive, and biological functioning. Despite recent advances in this area, there are unresolved questions that warrant further investigation involving the nature of risk transmission from parent to offspring, the specificity of findings to depression, and the role of factors that often accompany depression. We discuss these issues and offer directions for future research that we believe will move the field forward in gaining a better understanding of the relation between parental depression and altered psychobiological functioning in their offspring.

Emotion Regulation in Couples Across Adulthood

Intimate relationships are hotbeds of emotion. This article presents key findings and current directions in research on couples’ emotion regulation across adulthood as a critical context in which older adults not only maintain functioning but may also outshine younger adults. First, I introduce key concepts, defining qualities (i.e., dynamic, coregulatory, bidirectional, bivalent), and measures (i.e., self-report versus performance-based) of couples’ emotion regulation. Second, I highlight a socioemotional turn in our understanding of adult development with the advent of socioemotional selectivity theory. Third, I offer a life-span developmental perspective on emotion regulation in couples (i.e., across infancy, adolescence and young adulthood, midlife, and late life). Finally, I present the idea that emotion regulation may shift from “me to us” across adulthood and discuss how emotion regulation in couples may become more important, better, and increasingly consequential (e.g., for relationship outcomes, well-being, and health) with age. Ideas for future research are then discussed.

8 Ahead of Print Articles

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Developmental Psychology

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• Moritz M. Daum 5 , 6 &
• Mirella Manfredi 5  

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Developmental Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior from the perspective of change across the entire lifespan. In the present chapter, we provide a comprehensive and modern view on current topics particularly relevant when teaching Developmental Psychology. We start with the attempt to derive a contemporary definition of development and Developmental Psychology. Over historical time, perspectives on development changed. These different perspectives were regularly challenged, and we discuss some of the questions of scientific dispute such as the influence of nature and nurture on the development of an individual from a contemporary perspective. The perspectives often resulted in larger theoretical constructs. We will not describe individual theories comprehensively but rather focus on general issues of theoretical approaches and highlight one recent approach, the dynamic systems theories. Theories need to be supported by empirical evidence. Accordingly, we will briefly describe the major research designs used to measure developmental change. We will conclude the chapter with a focus on one topic particularly relevant when teaching Developmental Psychology, the development of communication, and discuss further topics that can potentially be included in a Developmental Psychology curriculum and describe some ideas on how to teach them. In all, we intend to provide a contemporary overview of the scientific study of developmental change.

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Developmental Psychology: Moving Beyond the East–West Divide

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Daum, M.M., Manfredi, M. (2023). Developmental Psychology. In: Zumbach, J., Bernstein, D.A., Narciss, S., Marsico, G. (eds) International Handbook of Psychology Learning and Teaching. Springer International Handbooks of Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28745-0_13

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