framed field experiment

This site lists publications and discussion papers in experimental economics that make use of the "field" in some manner. I have been motivated by Charlie Holt's website, which has been quite helpful for my students and me. With the recent growth of field experiments, I felt it apropos to provide a site that collates papers using field experiments--both published and working. In my own work I have reserved the term "field experiment" for those cases where I observed subjects in their naturally occurring environments. I explicitly, therefore, discriminated between explorations in this environment and laboratory studies that used non-standard subject pools. In a JEL paper (Harrison and List, 2004), such important differences are accounted for via qualifiers. I follow this nomenclature on this site.

I have placed studies into three groups:

• Artefactual field experiments: same as conventional lab experiments but with a non-standard subject pool (i.e., non-students). An example would be running Peruvian borrowers through lab games (e.g., Karlan, 2005 AER).
• Framed field experiments: identical to artefactual field experiments but with field context in either the commodity, task, or information set that the subjects use. An example would be work that elicits valuations for public goods that occur naturally in the environment of the subjects (e.g. Bohm's work).
• Natural field experiments: identical to framed field experiments except that the subjects do not know that they are participants in an experiment. An example could be found among the recent surge in fundraising experiments (e.g., List and Lucking-Reiley, 2002 JPE).

Of course, not all studies will fit neatly into one of these three categories. I hope, however, that the categories provide a useful way to think about the factors outside of a traditional laboratory experiment that are potentially important. I hope that you find the site useful -- I am sure that many studies are missing and therefore I will update the site often in an attempt to provide an informative source on field experiments. Accordingly, corrections and suggestions are welcome: [email protected] .

I would like to especially thank Dean Karlan and Joe Seidel, who had the idea to completely overhaul the site. Joe also spearheaded the changes to the site. Also, thanks to Nathaniel Higgins, Michael Price, and Jeff Cunningham for assistance. For online and personal use only, all rights reserved (John List and Dean Karlan). If you would like to post a study or find that I am missing a study, please send our team a message at [email protected] .

- John List

List et al 2024.

This website uses cookies.

By clicking the "Accept" button or continuing to browse our site, you agree to first-party and session-only cookies being stored on your device to enhance site navigation and analyze site performance and traffic. For more information on our use of cookies, please see our Privacy Policy .

American Economic Review

Cooperation in a dynamic fishing game: a framed field experiment.

ISSN 0002-8282 (Print) | ISSN 1944-7981 (Online)

• Editorial Policy
• Annual Report of the Editor
• Editorial Process: Discussions with the Editors
• Research Highlights
• Contact Information
• Current Issue
• Forthcoming Articles
• Submission Guidelines
• Accepted Article Guidelines
• Style Guide
• Reviewer Guidelines
• Charles N. Noussair
• Daan van Soest
• Article Information

Additional Materials

• Replication Package (97.68 KB)
• Author Disclosure Statement(s) (33.16 KB)

JEL Classification

• Q22 Renewable Resources and Conservation: Fishery; Aquaculture

Browse Econ Literature

• Working papers
• Software components
• Book chapters
• JEL classification

More features

• Subscribe to new research

RePEc Biblio

Author registration.

• Economics Virtual Seminar Calendar NEW!

Some searches may not work properly. We apologize for the inconvenience.

Framed Field Experiments: 2021 Summary on Fieldexperiments.com

• Author & abstract
• 46 References
• 1 Citations
• Most related
• Related works & more

Corrections

Suggested citation, download full text from publisher, references listed on ideas.

Follow serials, authors, keywords & more

Public profiles for Economics researchers

Various research rankings in Economics

RePEc Genealogy

Who was a student of whom, using RePEc

Curated articles & papers on economics topics

Upload your paper to be listed on RePEc and IDEAS

New papers by email

Subscribe to new additions to RePEc

EconAcademics

Blog aggregator for economics research

Cases of plagiarism in Economics

About RePEc

Initiative for open bibliographies in Economics

News about RePEc

Questions about IDEAS and RePEc

RePEc volunteers

Participating archives

Publishers indexing in RePEc

Privacy statement

Found an error or omission?

Opportunities to help RePEc

Get papers listed

Have your research listed on RePEc

Open a RePEc archive

Have your institution's/publisher's output listed on RePEc

Get RePEc data

Use data assembled by RePEc

Why High Incentives Cause Repugnance: A Framed Field Experiment

Abstract/contents, description.

Creators/Contributors

Bibliographic information

Access conditions

Preferred citation.

SITE Conference 2021

Each version has a distinct URL, but you can use this PURL to access the latest version. https://purl.stanford.edu/wm432zm3613

Contact information

Also listed in.

Loading usage metrics...

Assessing the reuse of liquid nitrogen in artificial ground freezing through field experiments

• Research Paper
• Published: 18 September 2024

Cite this article

• Hyun-Jun Choi 1 ,
• Seokjae Lee 2 ,
• Hyobum Lee 3 ,
• Sangyeong Park 4 , 6 ,
• Hangseok Choi 4 &
• Jongmuk Won   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6735-4020 5  

Liquid nitrogen is the most common refrigerant adopted in the artificial ground freezing (AGF) method for the rapid freezing of soil. However, the relatively high price of liquid nitrogen demands the reuse of liquid nitrogen in AGF, which utilizes partially gasified liquid nitrogen after an initial injection. This study investigated the reusability of liquid nitrogen in AGF by performing a field experiment. Temperatures of the ground were monitored near the sub-freezing pipes installed 1 m away from the main freezing pipes, where liquid nitrogen was initially injected. A frozen wall having a thickness of 1 m was formed between two sub-freezing pipes after 5 days of injecting liquid nitrogen into the main freezing pipes. Furthermore, the lowest temperature of  − 12 °C measured in the sub-freezing pipe implied that the temperature of nitrogen after circulating through the main freezing pipe was sufficiently low to freeze the surrounding soil formation. The freezing rate, elapsed time for freezing, and freezing duration evaluated from the monitored temperature data also demonstrated the promising potential of reusing liquid nitrogen in AGF for saturated silty deposits.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Explore related subjects

• Geoengineering

Data availability

The data used in this study are available from the corresponding author ([email protected]) upon request.

Abbreviations

• Artificial ground freezing

Standard penetration test

Liquid limit

Plasticity index

Unified soil classification system

Alzoubi MA, Nie-Rouquette A, Ghoreishi-Madiseh SA et al (2019) On the concept of the freezing-on-demand (FoD) in artificial ground freezing for long-term applications. Int J Heat Mass Transf 143:118557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.118557

Article   Google Scholar  

Alzoubi MA, Nie-Rouquette A, Sasmito AP (2018) Conjugate heat transfer in artificial ground freezing using enthalpy-porosity method: experiments and model validation. Int J Heat Mass Transf 126:740–752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.05.059

Alzoubi MA, Poncet S, Sasmito AP (2021) Hybrid artificial ground freezing as a sustainable solution for containing hazardous-waste in critical environmental projects. Cold Reg Sci Technol 192:103401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2021.103401

Alzoubi MA, Sasmito AP, Madiseh A, Hassani FP (2017) Intermittent freezing concept for energy saving in artificial ground freezing systems. Energy Procedia 142:3920–3925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.12.297

Andersland OB, Ladanyi B (2013) An introduction to frozen ground engineering. Springer, New York

Google Scholar  

Andersland OB, Wiggert DC, Davies SH (1996) Hydraulic conductivity of frozen granular soils. J Environ Eng 122:212–216. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(1996)122:3(212)

Becker BR, Misra A, Fricke BA (1992) Development of correlations for soil thermal conductivity. Int Commun Heat Mass Transf 19:59–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/0735-1933(92)90064-O

Bing H, Ma W (2011) Laboratory investigation of the freezing point of saline soil. Cold Reg Sci Technol 67:79–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2011.02.008

Braun B, Shuster J, Burnham E (1979) Ground freezing for support of open excavations. Eng Geol 13:429–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(79)90048-6

Casini F, Gens A, Olivella S, Viggiani GMB (2016) Artificial ground freezing of a volcanic ash: laboratory tests and modelling. Environ Geotech 3:141–154. https://doi.org/10.1680/envgeo.14.00004

Casini F, Guida G, Restaini A, Celot A (2023) Water retention curve-based design method for the artificial ground freezing: the Isarco river underpass tunnels within the brenner base tunnel project. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng. https://doi.org/10.1061/JGGEFK.GTENG-10723

Cavuoto F, Manassero V, Russo G, Corbo A (2020) Urban tunnelling under archaeological findings in Naples (Italy) with ground freezing and grouting techniques. Tunnels and underground cities. Engineering and innovation meet archaeology, architecture and art. CRC Press, New York, pp 32–41

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Choi H-J, Won J, Lee D et al (2021) Effect of ground freezing with liquid nitrogen on freezing rate and mechanical properties of coastal clayey silt. J Eng Mech 147:04021057. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)em.1943-7889.0001974

Crippa C, Manassero V (2006) Artificial ground freezing at sophiaspoortunnel (The Netherlands)—Freezing parameters: data acquisition and processing. In: GeoCongress 2006: Geotechnical engineering in the information technology age. pp 1–6

Evirgen B, Tuncan M (2019) A physical soil freezing model for laboratory applications. Cold Reg Sci Technol 159:29–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2018.12.005

Fan W, Yang P, Yang Z, (Joey), (2019) Impact of freeze-thaw on the physical properties and compressibility of saturated clay. Cold Reg Sci Technol 168:102873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2019.102873

He H, Flerchinger GN, Kojima Y et al (2021) A review and evaluation of 39 thermal conductivity models for frozen soils. Geoderma 382:114694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2020.114694

Hu X, Han L, Han Y (2019) Analytical solution to temperature distribution of frozen soil wall by multi-row-piped freezing with the boundary separation method. Appl Therm Eng 149:702–711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.12.096

Hu R, Liu Q, Xing Y (2018) Case study of heat transfer during artificial ground freezing with groundwater flow. Water 10:1322. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101322

Huang S, Guo Y, Liu Y et al (2018) Study on the influence of water flow on temperature around freeze pipes and its distribution optimization during artificial ground freezing. Appl Therm Eng 135:435–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.02.090

Jessberger HL (2017) A state-of-the-art report. Ground freezing: Mechanical properties, processes and design. In: Ground Freezing 1980: Selected Papers from the Second International Symposium on Ground Freezing, Trondheim, Norway, Elsevier, Amsterdam, p 5

Jones JS, Brown RE (1979) Design of tunnel support systems using ground freezing. Eng Geol 13:375–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(79)90044-9

Kang Y, Hou C, Li K et al (2021) Evolution of temperature field and frozen wall in sandy cobble stratum using LN2 freezing method. Appl Therm Eng 185:116334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2020.116334

Konrad J-M (2002) Prediction of freezing-induced movements for an underground construction project in Japan. Can Geotech J 39:1231–1242. https://doi.org/10.1139/t02-077

Kurz D, Alfaro M, Graham J (2017) Thermal conductivities of frozen and unfrozen soils at three project sites in northern Manitoba. Cold Reg Sci Technol 140:30–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2017.04.007

Levin L, Golovatyi I, Zaitsev A et al (2021) Thermal monitoring of frozen wall thawing after artificial ground freezing: case study of Petrikov Potash Mine. Tunn Undergr Sp Technol 107:103685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2020.103685

Li Z, Chen J, Sugimoto M, Ge H (2019) Numerical simulation model of artificial ground freezing for tunneling under seepage flow conditions. Tunn Undergr Sp Technol 92:103035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2019.103035

Li J, Tang Y, Feng W (2020) Creep behavior of soft clay subjected to artificial freeze–thaw from multiple-scale perspectives. Acta Geotech 15:2849–2864. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-020-00980-2

Li D, Wang H (2010) Investigation into artificial ground freezing technique for a cross passage in metro. In: Deep and underground excavations. pp 294–299

Liu Y, Li K-Q, Li D-Q et al (2022) Coupled thermal–hydraulic modeling of artificial ground freezing with uncertainties in pipe inclination and thermal conductivity. Acta Geotech 17:257–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-021-01221-w

Lyu C, Nishimura S, Amiri SAG et al (2021) Pore-water pressure development in a frozen saline clay under isotropic loading and undrained shearing. Acta Geotech 16:3831–3847. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-021-01338-y

Manassero V, Di Salvo G, Giannelli F, Colombo G (2008) A combination of artificial ground freezing and grouting for the excavation of a large size tunnel below groundwater

Marwan A, Zhou M-M, Zaki Abdelrehim M, Meschke G (2016) Optimization of artificial ground freezing in tunneling in the presence of seepage flow. Comput Geotech 75:112–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2016.01.004

Massarotti N, Mauro A, Normino G, et al (2019) Thermal phenomena model for artificial ground freezing during a tunnel excavation for the Municipio Metro station in Naples, Italy. In: Tunnels and underground cities: engineering and innovation meet archaeology, architecture and art. CRC Press, pp 1409–1418

Nicotera MV, Russo G (2021) Monitoring a deep excavation in pyroclastic soil and soft rock. Tunn Undergr Sp Technol 117:104130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2021.104130

Nikolaev P, Shuplik M (2019) Low-temperature ground freezing methods for underground construction in urban areas. In: MATEC Web of Conferences. EDP Sciences, p 4020

Penner E (1970) Thermal conductivity of frozen soils. Can J Earth Sci 7:982–987. https://doi.org/10.1139/e70-091

Pimentel E, Papakonstantinou S, Anagnostou G (2012) Numerical interpretation of temperature distributions from three ground freezing applications in urban tunnelling. Tunn Undergr Sp Technol 28:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2011.09.005

Russo G, Cavuoto F, Corbo A, Manassero V (2022) Municipio Station Metro Line 6 in Naples: a case of urban tunnelling adopting ground freezing and grouting techniques to underpass archaeological findings. In: Geotechnical Engineering for the Preservation of Monuments and Historic Sites III. CRC Press, New York, pp 937–950

Russo G, Corbo A, Cavuoto F, Autuori S (2015) Artificial ground freezing to excavate a tunnel in sandy soil. Measurements and back analysis. Tunn Undergr Sp Technol 50:226–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2015.07.008

Shuster JA (1981) Engineering quality assurance for construction ground freezing. Eng Geol 18:333–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(81)90072-7

Stille B, Brantmark J, Wilson L, Håkansson U (2017) Ground freezing design in tunnelling–Two case studies from Stockholm. In: Tunnels and underground structures. Routledge, New York, pp 185–190

Tian Z, Lu Y, Horton R, Ren T (2016) A simplified de Vries-based model to estimate thermal conductivity of unfrozen and frozen soil. Eur J Soil Sci 67:564–572. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.12366

Tounsi H, Rouabhi A, Jahangir E (2020) Thermo-hydro-mechanical modeling of artificial ground freezing taking into account the salinity of the saturating fluid. Comput Geotech 119:103382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2019.103382

Tounsi H, Rouabhi A, Tijani M, Guérin F (2019) Thermo-hydro-mechanical modeling of artificial ground freezing: application in mining engineering. Rock Mech Rock Eng 52:3889–3907. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-019-01786-9

Vitel M, Rouabhi A, Tijani M, Guérin F (2015) Modeling heat transfer between a freeze pipe and the surrounding ground during artificial ground freezing activities. Comput Geotech 63:99–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2014.08.004

Vu QH, Pereira J-M, Tang AM (2022) Effect of fines content on soil freezing characteristic curve of sandy soils. Acta Geotech. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-022-01672-9

Wang B, Rong C, Lin J et al (2019) Study on the formation law of the freezing temperature field of freezing shaft sinking under the action of large-flow-rate groundwater. Adv Mater Sci Eng 2019:1–20. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/1670820

Wang S, Wang Q, Qi J, Liu F (2018) Experimental study on freezing point of saline soft clay after freeze-thaw cycling. Geomech Eng 15:997–1004

Won J, Lee D, Choi H-J et al (2022) Field experiments for three freezing operation scenarios in silty soil deposits. Eng Geol 303:106642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2022.106642

Zhou M-M, Meschke G (2018) A multiscale homogenization model for strength predictions of fully and partially frozen soils. Acta Geotech 13:175–193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-017-0538-0

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) Grants funded by the Korean government (No. RS-2023-00221719) and Korea Agency for Infrastructure Technology Advancement under the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (No. RS-2024-00410248).

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Northern Infrastructure Specialized Team, Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology, 283 Goyangdae-Ro, Ilsanseo-Gu, Goyang, 10223, South Korea

Hyun-Jun Choi

Department of Civil Engineering, Kunsan National University, 558 Daehak-ro, Gunsan, 54150, South Korea

Seokjae Lee

Advanced Railroad Civil Engineering Division, Korea Railroad Research Institute, 176 Railroad Museum Road, Uiwang-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16105, South Korea

School of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seoul, 02841, South Korea

Sangyeong Park & Hangseok Choi

Department of Civil, Urban, Earth, and Environmental Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, 50 UNIST-gil, Ulsan, 44919, South Korea

Jongmuk Won

Harold Vance Department of Petroleum Engineering, Texas A&M University, 400 Bizzell Street, Texas, 77840, College Station, USA

Sangyeong Park

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jongmuk Won .

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Choi, HJ., Lee, S., Lee, H. et al. Assessing the reuse of liquid nitrogen in artificial ground freezing through field experiments. Acta Geotech. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-024-02388-8

Download citation

Received : 16 October 2022

Accepted : 11 August 2024

Published : 18 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-024-02388-8

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Field experiment
• Frozen wall
• Liquid nitrogen
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

• Search Menu

Sign in through your institution

• Browse content in Arts and Humanities
• Browse content in Archaeology
• Anglo-Saxon and Medieval Archaeology
• Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
• Archaeology by Region
• Archaeology of Religion
• Archaeology of Trade and Exchange
• Biblical Archaeology
• Contemporary and Public Archaeology
• Environmental Archaeology
• Historical Archaeology
• History and Theory of Archaeology
• Industrial Archaeology
• Landscape Archaeology
• Mortuary Archaeology
• Prehistoric Archaeology
• Underwater Archaeology
• Urban Archaeology
• Zooarchaeology
• Browse content in Architecture
• Architectural Structure and Design
• History of Architecture
• Residential and Domestic Buildings
• Theory of Architecture
• Browse content in Art
• Art Subjects and Themes
• History of Art
• Industrial and Commercial Art
• Theory of Art
• Biographical Studies
• Byzantine Studies
• Browse content in Classical Studies
• Classical Numismatics
• Classical Literature
• Classical Reception
• Classical History
• Classical Philosophy
• Classical Mythology
• Classical Art and Architecture
• Classical Oratory and Rhetoric
• Greek and Roman Archaeology
• Greek and Roman Epigraphy
• Greek and Roman Law
• Greek and Roman Papyrology
• Late Antiquity
• Religion in the Ancient World
• Social History
• Digital Humanities
• Browse content in History
• Colonialism and Imperialism
• Diplomatic History
• Environmental History
• Genealogy, Heraldry, Names, and Honours
• Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing
• Historical Geography
• History by Period
• History of Agriculture
• History of Education
• History of Emotions
• History of Gender and Sexuality
• Industrial History
• Intellectual History
• International History
• Labour History
• Legal and Constitutional History
• Local and Family History
• Maritime History
• Military History
• National Liberation and Post-Colonialism
• Oral History
• Political History
• Public History
• Regional and National History
• Revolutions and Rebellions
• Slavery and Abolition of Slavery
• Social and Cultural History
• Theory, Methods, and Historiography
• Urban History
• World History
• Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning
• Language Learning (Specific Skills)
• Language Teaching Theory and Methods
• Browse content in Linguistics
• Applied Linguistics
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Computational Linguistics
• Forensic Linguistics
• Grammar, Syntax and Morphology
• Historical and Diachronic Linguistics
• History of English
• Language Variation
• Language Families
• Language Acquisition
• Language Evolution
• Language Reference
• Lexicography
• Linguistic Theories
• Linguistic Typology
• Linguistic Anthropology
• Phonetics and Phonology
• Psycholinguistics
• Sociolinguistics
• Translation and Interpretation
• Writing Systems
• Browse content in Literature
• Bibliography
• Children's Literature Studies
• Literary Studies (Modernism)
• Literary Studies (Asian)
• Literary Studies (European)
• Literary Studies (Eco-criticism)
• Literary Studies (Romanticism)
• Literary Studies (American)
• Literary Studies - World
• Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
• Literary Studies (19th Century)
• Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
• Literary Studies (African American Literature)
• Literary Studies (British and Irish)
• Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
• Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
• Literary Studies (Gender Studies)
• Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
• Literary Studies (History of the Book)
• Literary Studies (Plays and Playwrights)
• Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
• Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature)
• Literary Studies (Queer Studies)
• Literary Studies (Science Fiction)
• Literary Studies (Travel Literature)
• Literary Studies (War Literature)
• Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
• Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
• Mythology and Folklore
• Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
• Browse content in Media Studies
• Browse content in Music
• Applied Music
• Dance and Music
• Ethics in Music
• Ethnomusicology
• Gender and Sexuality in Music
• Medicine and Music
• Music Cultures
• Music and Culture
• Music and Religion
• Music and Media
• Music Education and Pedagogy
• Music Theory and Analysis
• Musical Scores, Lyrics, and Libretti
• Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques
• Musicology and Music History
• Performance Practice and Studies
• Race and Ethnicity in Music
• Sound Studies
• Browse content in Performing Arts
• Browse content in Philosophy
• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Epistemology
• Feminist Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy
• Meta-Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Moral Philosophy
• Non-Western Philosophy
• Philosophy of Action
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Perception
• Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic
• Practical Ethics
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Browse content in Religion
• Biblical Studies
• Christianity
• East Asian Religions
• History of Religion
• Judaism and Jewish Studies
• Qumran Studies
• Religion and Education
• Religion and Health
• Religion and Politics
• Religion and Science
• Religion and Law
• Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
• Religious Studies
• Browse content in Society and Culture
• Cookery, Food, and Drink
• Cultural Studies
• Customs and Traditions
• Ethical Issues and Debates
• Hobbies, Games, Arts and Crafts
• Natural world, Country Life, and Pets
• Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge
• Sports and Outdoor Recreation
• Technology and Society
• Travel and Holiday
• Visual Culture
• Browse content in Law
• Arbitration
• Browse content in Company and Commercial Law
• Commercial Law
• Company Law
• Browse content in Comparative Law
• Systems of Law
• Competition Law
• Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law
• Government Powers
• Judicial Review
• Local Government Law
• Military and Defence Law
• Parliamentary and Legislative Practice
• Construction Law
• Contract Law
• Browse content in Criminal Law
• Criminal Procedure
• Criminal Evidence Law
• Sentencing and Punishment
• Employment and Labour Law
• Environment and Energy Law
• Browse content in Financial Law
• Banking Law
• Insolvency Law
• History of Law
• Human Rights and Immigration
• Intellectual Property Law
• Browse content in International Law
• Private International Law and Conflict of Laws
• Public International Law
• IT and Communications Law
• Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law
• Law and Society
• Law and Politics
• Browse content in Legal System and Practice
• Courts and Procedure
• Legal Skills and Practice
• Legal System - Costs and Funding
• Primary Sources of Law
• Regulation of Legal Profession
• Medical and Healthcare Law
• Browse content in Policing
• Criminal Investigation and Detection
• Police and Security Services
• Police Procedure and Law
• Police Regional Planning
• Browse content in Property Law
• Personal Property Law
• Restitution
• Study and Revision
• Terrorism and National Security Law
• Browse content in Trusts Law
• Wills and Probate or Succession
• Browse content in Medicine and Health
• Browse content in Allied Health Professions
• Arts Therapies
• Clinical Science
• Dietetics and Nutrition
• Occupational Therapy
• Operating Department Practice
• Physiotherapy
• Radiography
• Speech and Language Therapy
• Browse content in Anaesthetics
• General Anaesthesia
• Browse content in Clinical Medicine
• Acute Medicine
• Cardiovascular Medicine
• Clinical Genetics
• Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
• Dermatology
• Endocrinology and Diabetes
• Gastroenterology
• Genito-urinary Medicine
• Geriatric Medicine
• Infectious Diseases
• Medical Oncology
• Medical Toxicology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Medicine
• Rehabilitation Medicine
• Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonology
• Rheumatology
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports and Exercise Medicine
• Clinical Neuroscience
• Community Medical Services
• Critical Care
• Emergency Medicine
• Forensic Medicine
• Haematology
• History of Medicine
• Medical Ethics
• Browse content in Medical Dentistry
• Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
• Paediatric Dentistry
• Restorative Dentistry and Orthodontics
• Surgical Dentistry
• Browse content in Medical Skills
• Clinical Skills
• Communication Skills
• Nursing Skills
• Surgical Skills
• Medical Statistics and Methodology
• Browse content in Neurology
• Clinical Neurophysiology
• Neuropathology
• Nursing Studies
• Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
• Gynaecology
• Occupational Medicine
• Ophthalmology
• Otolaryngology (ENT)
• Browse content in Paediatrics
• Neonatology
• Browse content in Pathology
• Chemical Pathology
• Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics
• Histopathology
• Medical Microbiology and Virology
• Patient Education and Information
• Browse content in Pharmacology
• Psychopharmacology
• Browse content in Popular Health
• Caring for Others
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Self-help and Personal Development
• Browse content in Preclinical Medicine
• Cell Biology
• Molecular Biology and Genetics
• Reproduction, Growth and Development
• Primary Care
• Professional Development in Medicine
• Browse content in Psychiatry
• Addiction Medicine
• Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Learning Disabilities
• Old Age Psychiatry
• Psychotherapy
• Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
• Epidemiology
• Public Health
• Browse content in Radiology
• Clinical Radiology
• Interventional Radiology
• Nuclear Medicine
• Radiation Oncology
• Reproductive Medicine
• Browse content in Surgery
• Cardiothoracic Surgery
• Gastro-intestinal and Colorectal Surgery
• General Surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Paediatric Surgery
• Peri-operative Care
• Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
• Surgical Oncology
• Transplant Surgery
• Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
• Vascular Surgery
• Browse content in Science and Mathematics
• Browse content in Biological Sciences
• Aquatic Biology
• Biochemistry
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
• Developmental Biology
• Ecology and Conservation
• Evolutionary Biology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Microbiology
• Molecular and Cell Biology
• Natural History
• Plant Sciences and Forestry
• Research Methods in Life Sciences
• Structural Biology
• Systems Biology
• Zoology and Animal Sciences
• Browse content in Chemistry
• Analytical Chemistry
• Computational Chemistry
• Crystallography
• Environmental Chemistry
• Industrial Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Materials Chemistry
• Medicinal Chemistry
• Mineralogy and Gems
• Organic Chemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Polymer Chemistry
• Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry
• Theoretical Chemistry
• Browse content in Computer Science
• Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Architecture and Logic Design
• Game Studies
• Human-Computer Interaction
• Mathematical Theory of Computation
• Programming Languages
• Software Engineering
• Systems Analysis and Design
• Virtual Reality
• Browse content in Computing
• Business Applications
• Computer Games
• Computer Security
• Computer Networking and Communications
• Digital Lifestyle
• Graphical and Digital Media Applications
• Operating Systems
• Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
• Atmospheric Sciences
• Environmental Geography
• Geology and the Lithosphere
• Maps and Map-making
• Meteorology and Climatology
• Oceanography and Hydrology
• Palaeontology
• Physical Geography and Topography
• Regional Geography
• Soil Science
• Urban Geography
• Browse content in Engineering and Technology
• Agriculture and Farming
• Biological Engineering
• Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building
• Electronics and Communications Engineering
• Energy Technology
• Engineering (General)
• Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
• History of Engineering and Technology
• Mechanical Engineering and Materials
• Technology of Industrial Chemistry
• Transport Technology and Trades
• Browse content in Environmental Science
• Applied Ecology (Environmental Science)
• Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Environmental Sustainability
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environmental Science)
• Nuclear Issues (Environmental Science)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science)
• History of Science and Technology
• Browse content in Materials Science
• Ceramics and Glasses
• Composite Materials
• Metals, Alloying, and Corrosion
• Nanotechnology
• Browse content in Mathematics
• Applied Mathematics
• Biomathematics and Statistics
• History of Mathematics
• Mathematical Education
• Mathematical Finance
• Mathematical Analysis
• Numerical and Computational Mathematics
• Probability and Statistics
• Pure Mathematics
• Browse content in Neuroscience
• Cognition and Behavioural Neuroscience
• Development of the Nervous System
• Disorders of the Nervous System
• History of Neuroscience
• Invertebrate Neurobiology
• Molecular and Cellular Systems
• Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System
• Neuroscientific Techniques
• Sensory and Motor Systems
• Browse content in Physics
• Astronomy and Astrophysics
• Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
• Biological and Medical Physics
• Classical Mechanics
• Computational Physics
• Condensed Matter Physics
• Electromagnetism, Optics, and Acoustics
• History of Physics
• Mathematical and Statistical Physics
• Measurement Science
• Nuclear Physics
• Particles and Fields
• Plasma Physics
• Quantum Physics
• Relativity and Gravitation
• Semiconductor and Mesoscopic Physics
• Browse content in Psychology
• Affective Sciences
• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Cognitive Psychology
• Criminal and Forensic Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Evolutionary Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems in Psychology
• Music Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational Psychology
• Psychological Assessment and Testing
• Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction
• Psychology Professional Development and Training
• Research Methods in Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Browse content in Social Sciences
• Browse content in Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Human Evolution
• Medical Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Regional Anthropology
• Social and Cultural Anthropology
• Theory and Practice of Anthropology
• Browse content in Business and Management
• Business History
• Business Strategy
• Business Ethics
• Business and Government
• Business and Technology
• Business and the Environment
• Comparative Management
• Corporate Governance
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Entrepreneurship
• Health Management
• Human Resource Management
• Industrial and Employment Relations
• Industry Studies
• Information and Communication Technologies
• International Business
• Knowledge Management
• Management and Management Techniques
• Operations Management
• Organizational Theory and Behaviour
• Pensions and Pension Management
• Public and Nonprofit Management
• Social Issues in Business and Management
• Strategic Management
• Supply Chain Management
• Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice
• Criminal Justice
• Criminology
• Forms of Crime
• International and Comparative Criminology
• Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
• Development Studies
• Browse content in Economics
• Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics
• Asian Economics
• Behavioural Finance
• Behavioural Economics and Neuroeconomics
• Econometrics and Mathematical Economics
• Economic Methodology
• Economic Systems
• Economic History
• Economic Development and Growth
• Financial Markets
• Financial Institutions and Services
• General Economics and Teaching
• Health, Education, and Welfare
• History of Economic Thought
• International Economics
• Labour and Demographic Economics
• Law and Economics
• Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
• Microeconomics
• Public Economics
• Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
• Welfare Economics
• Browse content in Education
• Adult Education and Continuous Learning
• Care and Counselling of Students
• Early Childhood and Elementary Education
• Educational Equipment and Technology
• Educational Strategies and Policy
• Higher and Further Education
• Organization and Management of Education
• Philosophy and Theory of Education
• Schools Studies
• Secondary Education
• Teaching of a Specific Subject
• Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
• Teaching Skills and Techniques
• Browse content in Environment
• Applied Ecology (Social Science)
• Climate Change
• Conservation of the Environment (Social Science)
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Social Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environment)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Social Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science)
• Sustainability
• Browse content in Human Geography
• Cultural Geography
• Economic Geography
• Political Geography
• Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies
• Communication Studies
• Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
• Browse content in Politics
• African Politics
• Asian Politics
• Chinese Politics
• Comparative Politics
• Conflict Politics
• Elections and Electoral Studies
• Environmental Politics
• Ethnic Politics
• European Union
• Foreign Policy
• Gender and Politics
• Human Rights and Politics
• Indian Politics
• International Relations
• International Organization (Politics)
• Irish Politics
• Latin American Politics
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Theory
• Political Methodology
• Political Communication
• Political Philosophy
• Political Sociology
• Political Behaviour
• Political Economy
• Political Institutions
• Politics and Law
• Politics of Development
• Public Administration
• Public Policy
• Qualitative Political Methodology
• Quantitative Political Methodology
• Regional Political Studies
• Russian Politics
• Security Studies
• State and Local Government
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
• African Studies
• Asian Studies
• East Asian Studies
• Japanese Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Middle Eastern Studies
• Native American Studies
• Scottish Studies
• Browse content in Research and Information
• Research Methods
• Browse content in Social Work
• Addictions and Substance Misuse
• Adoption and Fostering
• Care of the Elderly
• Child and Adolescent Social Work
• Couple and Family Social Work
• Direct Practice and Clinical Social Work
• Emergency Services
• Human Behaviour and the Social Environment
• International and Global Issues in Social Work
• Mental and Behavioural Health
• Social Justice and Human Rights
• Social Policy and Advocacy
• Social Work and Crime and Justice
• Social Work Macro Practice
• Social Work Practice Settings
• Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice
• Welfare and Benefit Systems
• Browse content in Sociology
• Childhood Studies
• Community Development
• Comparative and Historical Sociology
• Disability Studies
• Economic Sociology
• Gender and Sexuality
• Gerontology and Ageing
• Health, Illness, and Medicine
• Marriage and the Family
• Migration Studies
• Occupations, Professions, and Work
• Organizations
• Population and Demography
• Race and Ethnicity
• Social Theory
• Social Movements and Social Change
• Social Research and Statistics
• Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility
• Sociology of Religion
• Sociology of Education
• Sport and Leisure
• Urban and Rural Studies
• Browse content in Warfare and Defence
• Defence Strategy, Planning, and Research
• Land Forces and Warfare
• Military Administration
• Military Life and Institutions
• Naval Forces and Warfare
• Other Warfare and Defence Issues
• Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
• Weapons and Equipment

• < Previous chapter
• Next chapter >

50 Field Experiments and Natural Experiments

Yale University

Donald P. Green (Ph.D., University of California at Berkeley) is Professor of Political Science at Columbia University. The author of four books and more than one hundred essays, Green's research interests span a wide array of topics: voting behavior, partisanship, campaign finance, hate crime, and research methods. Much of his current work uses field experimentation to study the ways in which political campaigns mobilize and persuade voters, but he has also conducted experimental research on the effects of the mass media, civic education classes, and criminal sentencing. With Alan Gerber, he recently co-authored a textbook on this research method titled Field Experiments: Design, Analysis, and Interpretation (W.W. Norton, 2012).

• Published: 05 September 2013
• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

This article evaluates the strengths and limitations of field experimentation. It first defines field experimentation and describes the many forms that field experiments take. It also interprets the growth and development of field experimentation. It then discusses why experiments are valuable for causal inference. The assumptions of experimental and nonexperimental inference are distinguished, noting that the value accorded to observational research is often inflated by misleading reporting conventions. The article elaborates on the study of natural experiments and discontinuities as alternatives to both randomized interventions and conventional nonexperimental research. Finally, it outlines a list of methodological issues that arise commonly in connection with experimental design and analysis: the role of covariates, planned vs. unplanned comparisons, and extrapolation. It concludes by dealing with the ways in which field experimentation is reshaping the field of political methodology.

Personal account

• Sign in with email/username & password
• Get email alerts
• Save searches
• Purchase content
• Activate your purchase/trial code
• Add your ORCID iD

Institutional access

Sign in with a library card.

• Sign in with username/password
• Recommend to your librarian
• Institutional account management
• Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.

• Click Sign in through your institution.
• Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
• When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
• Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:

• Click Sign in through society site.
• When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

• View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
• View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.

• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Rights and permissions
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Mets inch closer to postseason berth behind 9-run inning

Anthony DiComo

NEW YORK -- Standing on the Citi Field turf after another banner win, Brandon Nimmo gazed up into the crowd, tilted his head toward a microphone and implored fans to come to the ballpark this weekend. He asked them to get rowdy, to be loud. The Mets had just completed a 10-0 victory and a series sweep of the Nationals, allowing them to maintain a two-game lead over the Braves in the National League Wild Card race.

New York is tied with Arizona -- but holds the tiebreaker over the D-backs -- for the second Wild Card spot.

• Be there on Saturday to get a Fan Appreciation Beanie

October baseball is in clear view for a Mets team that’s saved some of its finest work for mid-September. They know it. They feel it. They want as much support as possible for their final push.

“I’m pretty much convinced now, we’re not in the regular season anymore,” Nimmo said. “We’re in playoff baseball. Every win is extremely important. It decides whether we keep playing or not.”

If the Mets continue performing like this, they will keep playing -- plain and simple. A little more than 23 minutes passed from the time DJ Herz threw his first pitch of the fourth inning Wednesday to the time a large crowd rose in respectful ovation. As far as statements go, this wasn’t a lengthy one. But it was unmistakably clear.

The Mets, who long ago sprung out of their coffins to establish themselves as legitimate NL Wild Card contenders, demonstrated with a nine-run fourth inning that they are capable of more than merely a playoff berth. They are a fireball growing hotter at just the right time. Over the span of those 23 minutes, New York sent a dozen men to the plate, rapped out seven hits and scored nine times in its most explosive half-inning of the season. In the dugout, the Mets impelled their “OMG” sign into overtime work.

Nimmo, who began the fourth-inning rally with a leadoff walk, also provided its most dramatic blow with a three-run homer to cap the scoring. In between, Tyrone Taylor hit an RBI double, Mark Vientos and Starling Marte each had a two-run hit and Luisangel Acuña plated a run for the second consecutive night.

It was an extravagant amount of support for Jose Quintana, who threw seven shutout innings to extend his scoreless streak to 22 2/3 and improve his ERA to 0.28 over his past five starts.

“I’m really proud of this group,” Quintana said.

How could he not be? For the better part of four months, most everything has gone right for the Mets. Before Wednesday’s game, owner Steve Cohen stood on the field and watched batting practice, proud of what his team had accomplished. Cohen, who is taking a step back from the daily trading operations of his hedge fund, plans to travel to Atlanta and Milwaukee next week to be with the Mets for their most impactful games. He intends to be present if his team clinches a playoff berth.

As recently as June, that seemed like a long shot for a group that began the year 0-5 -- and nearly lost its sixth game as well -- then was 11 games under .500 by the end of May. But Cohen always believed in the talent of this roster. So did manager Carlos Mendoza, who implored his players back in late spring to “trust the process” and “continue to find ways to get better.”

Have the latest news, ticket information, and more from the Mets and MLB delivered right to your inbox.

“And they did it. I’m proud of them,” Mendoza said Wednesday afternoon. “But look, we haven’t done anything. Yeah, it’s a good feeling when you come to the ballpark this time of year and you’re playing for something special. But we haven’t done anything.”

Indeed, despite their catbird perch, New York has yet to clinch a playoff spot. The club's best player, Francisco Lindor, remains sidelined with a lower-back injury, and the Mets don't know if he’ll be available for the start of their season-defining gauntlet: An upcoming 10-game stretch against two first-place teams and -- cue the dramatic piano chords -- an Atlanta club that has long been their tormentor. Any slip now could cost the Mets dearly.

That stretch begins Thursday against the Phillies in the first of four remaining home games at Citi Field. It’s technically possible those could be the final four baseball games in Queens this season.

And yet ...

“I’m not ready to call it our last homestand,” Mendoza said. “I don’t think anybody is ready to call it that.”