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April 5, 2022

Widely used food additive affects the human gut microbiota

by Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU)

Have you heard about the food additive E415? It is also known as xanthan gum. Most likely, you eat it several times a week. Xanthan gum is used in everyday foods such as baked goods, ice cream and salad dressings. The additive is also widely used as a substitute for gluten in gluten-free foods.

New research now shows that xanthan gum affects our gut microbiota.

The study was recently published in Nature Microbiology by a team of scientists at NMBU in collaboration with the University of Michigan and several other international partners.

"We were surprised at how much the human gut bacteria have adapted to this additive since it was introduced into the modern diet only fifty years ago," says NMBU researcher Sabina Leanti La Rosa.

When it was first introduced, xanthan gum was thought to not affect us as it was not digested by the human body. However, the new study shows that the additive nevertheless affects the bacteria that live in our intestines. And these bacteria are important for our health and well-being.

"The gut bacteria we have investigated show genetic changes and a rapid adaptation to enable them to digest this particular additive," explains professor Phil Pope.

He leads the Microbial Ecology and Meta-Omics group at NMBU, where the researchers who conducted the new study work.

A new food chain in the gut

The study shows that the ability to digest xanthan gum is surprisingly common in the human gut microbiota in the industrialized world and appears to depend on the activity of a single bacterium that is a member of the family Ruminococcaceae.

Together with postdoc Matthew Ostrowski and professor Eric C. Martens, both from the University of Michigan, the NMBU-scientists have used several different methods that analyze genes, transcripts, proteins and enzymes produced by the gut bacteria, to uncover how this single bacterial species digests xanthan gum. The work includes laboratory testing of stool samples from many human donors, mouse experiments and data from large international databases of microbial genes.

"The bacterium that can digest xanthan gum was found among the gut microbiota of surprisingly many people from industrialized countries," says La Rosa.

In some samples, another type of microbe was also found that interacted with the xanthan gum, this one in the species Bacteroides intestinalis. This bacterium could hijack and further break down small pieces of xanthan gum created during the digestion of the larger xanthan molecules by the Ruminococcaceae bacterium. The Bacteroides bacterium was equipped with its own special enzymes that allowed it to eat these small xanthan gum fragments.

The study demonstrates the existence of a potential xanthan gum-driven food chain involving at least two types of gut bacteria. It provides an initial framework to understand how widespread consumption of a recently introduced food additive influences the human gut microbiota.

"The most innovative elements of our study are the advanced approaches we combined in order to identify uncharacterized metabolic pathways in microorganisms that are part of a complex microbial community, without the need of isolating each single microbe in monoculture. Then, we characterized in detail the enzyme systems for xanthan gum degradation, to validate our bioinformatics-based predictions. This multi-disciplinary approach provides a blueprint to understanding metabolism within the human gut microbiota and can be applied to any complex gut ecosystem," explains La Rosa.

"The methodologies used in this study are certainly pushing boundaries and enable us to really deconstruct microbiomes to answer important biological questions that have societal relevance. These approaches have been made possible by the extensive competences in microbiome research at NMBU including multi-omics (at the Microbial Ecology and Meta-Omics group) and enzymology (at the Protein Engineering and Proteomics Group)," says Pope.

Gluten-free and low carb

In Norway, around 300 additives are approved for use in food. Xanthan gum, or E415, is one of these. The additive is a fermentation product that is generated by fermenting sugar using the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris. The production process creates a jelly-like liquid that is dried and turned into powder.

According to the Norwegian Food Safety Authority, xanthan gum is used as a thickener or stabilizer and is currently allowed for use in many foods, including ice cream, sweets, chocolate milk, baked goods, ready-made sauces and dressings. Xanthan gum is also used as a substitute for gluten in gluten-free foods and is sold as a separate dietary supplement for keto/low-carb diets.

The additive was developed in California in the sixties and was approved as safe for use in food by the U.S. Food Safety Authority in 1968. It is used today across much of the industrialized world.

"So far xanthan gum is considered a keto-friendly product. This is because it is believed that xanthan is not digested by the body and therefore it doesn't count in the daily calorie or macronutrient intake," says La Rosa.

However, she explains, the new study shows that gut bacteria break down xanthan gum to its constituent monosaccharides, which are subsequently fermented to produce short-chain fatty acids that can be assimilated by the human body. Short-chain fatty acids are known to supply up to 10 percent of calories to humans.

This suggests xanthan gum could in fact add to a person's calorie intake.

Starting to see long-term effects

When xanthan gum was first introduced, it was thought that the additive went straight through the body without affecting the person who ate it.

Xanthan gum is a different type of carbohydrate from those that the human body is used to consume, such as starch from plant food. It has a different chemical structure. Xanthan gum is a type of complex carbohydrate that is not similar to any of the plant fibers we normally eat.

"We are now starting to see long-term effects of xanthan gum that were not seen when it was first introduced into the human diet," says La Rosa.

"We only see these changes in gut bacteria of people eating a 'westernized diet' where processed foods and additives make up a significant part of the food intake. For example, we do not see the same changes in indigenous people from different parts of the globe who eat limited amounts of processed foods."

What does it mean for our health?

"Based on this study, we cannot conclude if and how xanthan gum affects our health. But we can say that the additive affects the microbiota in the gut of people who consume it through food," says La Rosa.

"We still have a long way to go, and it is exciting to contribute to more research in this field and unravel the hidden effects of predominant food additives on the function of the gut microbiota and human gut health. That is our goal," says La Rosa.

To dig deeper into the matter, the NMBU team has recently applied for funding from the Research Council of Norway, with La Rosa at the helm.

Should make new assessments of additives

Xanthan gum is approved as safe to use in foodstuffs in large parts of the world, based on assessments made fifty years ago.

The low, but constant consumption of xanthan gum by a large fraction of the population in the industrialized world, and its higher intake by specific subgroups such as those with gluten intolerance, highlight the need to better understand the effects of this food additive on the ecology of the human gut microbiota and on overall host health.

La Rosa therefore believes it is time for the authorities to adjust assessments of common additives used in our everyday food:

"This should change how we look at additives in general. When they were first introduced, they were not believed to interact with our microbiota. These additives were introduced in the 19-sixties when we did not have the means to appreciate the major influence the gut microbiota has on our health and nutrition. With advancements in microbiome science, we now see effects that we did not see in the beginning. Authorities should perhaps take this new knowledge into consideration when evaluating commonly used food additives, especially now that we see that they do in fact impact our microbiota."

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Xanthan Gum: Is This Food Additive Healthy?

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Table of Contents

What is xanthan gum, xanthan gum health benefits, is xanthan gum safe.

Xanthan gum is an ingredient that’s been used in the U.S. food supply for over 50 years, and although you may have never heard of it, you’ve most likely eaten something that contained it.

Keep reading for information on what xanthan gum is, what it’s used for, what foods contain it and if it’s safe to consume.

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“Xanthan gum is a popular additive used in food processing as a thickener or stabilizer,” says Debomitra Dey, Ph.D., member of the carbohydrate division at the Institute of Food Technologists and a food extrusion specialist at CW Brabender Instruments Inc. in New Jersey.

Xanthan gum is a water-attracting substance. So, when it’s added to a product that contains water (either hot or cold), xanthan gum binds to the water molecules and swells, forming a thick and viscous mixture. This property of xanthan gum helps it thicken familiar foods, adds Dr. Dey.

The United States Department of Agriculture discovered xanthan gum in the 1950s, and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved it as a safe food additive in 1969.

It’s considered nontoxic and biodegradable, according to Roger Clemens, Dr.PH., adjunct professor at the USC Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences in Los Angeles.

How Is Xanthan Gum Made?

Xanthan gum is a type of complex carbohydrate called a polysaccharide. It’s made from a type of bacteria, Xanthomonas campestris , through the same process responsible for foods like wine, cheese, yogurt and pickles—fermentation.

Through a tightly-controlled, large-scale process, this specific type of bacteria is grown and “eats” the sugars it’s fed, resulting in xanthan gum. The sources for those sugars might include corn, wheat, rice or sugar.

Raw xanthan gum is a gooey substance, so it’s solidified, dried and then purified into the finished ingredient that can be used in foods, according to Andres Ayesta, registered dietitian and principal CEO of Planos Nutrition based in Tampa, Florida.

Foods That Include Xanthan Gum

Xanthan gum, while not naturally found in foods, is added to products when thickening, emulsifying (the process of combining two or more ingredients that don’t normally mix) or when texture modification is needed. It’s great at combining ingredients together and preventing them from separating.

It can even improve flavor release in foods or drinks, notes Dr. Dey.

“Food that contains xanthan gum includes canned soups, gravies and sauces, salad dressing, bakery goods, syrups and many gluten-free products ,” explains Keri Gans, a registered dietitian and Forbes Health Advisory Board member , based in New York City.

A good example of how xanthan gum improves the quality and experience of common foods is with salad dressings.

“When you make a vinaigrette at home, the liquid and oil will often separate and the spices and herbs will fall to the bottom of the solution,” explains Rachel Gooding, a consulting research chef located in Beverly, Massachusetts. When xanthan gum is added to a salad dressing mixture, everything stays blended and in suspension, she notes.

Here’s a breakdown of how xanthan gum is used in other foods you might enjoy, according to experts.

Products That Include Xanthan Gum

Xanthan gum is used in non-food items as a thickening agent or emulsifier, including in body lotion, face cream, shampoo and toothpaste, says Gans.

There are many industrial applications of xanthan gum, including the following uses, adds Ayesta:

• Paints and inks: It can help prevent pigment settling in paints and inks.
• Textile printing: Used as a thickening agent for dye used in printing.
• Construction materials: Used in concrete and grout to control water penetration and workability and adhesion of these materials.
• Agriculture: Used in fertilizers and herbicides as a stabilizer and to control the release of active ingredients.

Xanthan gum may have an array of purported health benefits, according to experts.

Researchers continue to unravel how xanthan gum may impact gut health .

A 2017 re-evaluation of the safety of xanthan gum suggests that when eaten in amounts ranging from 10.4 to 12.9 grams per day, it may add bulk to stool with no adverse nutritional or physiological consequences. [1] EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS), et al. Re-evaluation of xanthan gum (E 415) as a food additive . EFSA J. 2017;15(7):e04909.

Another 2022 study with a mixed experimental approach using humans, animals and human cells demonstrated that humans appear to have a type of bacteria capable of breaking down xanthan gum and making it a “fermentable fiber,” so it could be considered “prebiotic,” explains Keith Ayoob, Ed.D., associate clinical professor of pediatrics and director of the nutrition clinic at the Children’s Evaluation and Rehabilitation Center at Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York City. [2] Ostrowski MP, et al. Mechanistic insights into consumption of the food additive xanthan gum by the human gut microbiota . Nat Microbiol. 2022;7(4):556-569.

Prebiotics are substances that are selectively used as food by certain beneficial microorganisms in, on or around the body, notes the International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP).

That said, xanthan gum has not yet been recognized by the FDA as a form of dietary fiber . It’s also not recognized as a prebiotic at this time by other expert organizations, such as ISAPP.

Many of the studies analyzing xanthan gum’s impact on gut health have been done in cells or in animals using amounts that well exceed what you’d typically get from foods, so much more research is needed in humans before scientists understand xanthan gum’s role in the gut.

Gluten-Free Diet

For people with celiac disease or a gluten sensitivity , a protein naturally found in wheat, barley and rye called gluten must be avoided in the diet.

From a culinary standpoint, that can be problematic, as gluten creates structure in baked goods, adding airness in breads and moistness in cakes.

In gluten-free products, food additive gums like xanthan gum take the place of gluten, providing structure.

“When using gluten-free flours without a structural component, the result [of the baked good] will be flat and deflated,” explains Gooding. “By adding a long chain starch like xanthan gum, the long strands create a similar structure to that of gluten, allowing the item to keep its integrity.”

Xanthan gum helps improve the texture, consistency and variety of gluten-free foods available in stores, which can help people who must medically avoid gluten improve their ability to stick with and enjoy a gluten-free diet.

Blood Sugar

“Xanthan gum can slow digestion, which helps in regulating the absorption of sugars into the bloodstream,” suggests Ayesta.

A slower absorption rate could lead to a reduction in blood sugar spikes after meals, which is particularly beneficial for individuals with diabetes, he adds.

A 2021 review of 14 studies found that when xanthan gum is added to muffins (12 grams of xanthan gum per day) or rice, it resulted in a lower blood sugar response after meals. [3] Alshammari NA, et al. Effect of intake of food hydrocolloids of bacterial origin on the glycemic response in humans: Systematic review and narrative synthesis . Nutrients. 2021;13(7):2407.

But, it’s important to note that the amount of xanthan gum in food products is typically less than what’s used in studies showing benefits for lowering blood sugar.

These studies are typically done in otherwise healthy people, so additional research is needed to see if xanthan gum has an effect in people with prediabetes or diabetes.

Cholesterol

Xanthan gum seems to form a “gel” when digested that could help prevent reabsorption of cholesterol bile salts, suggests Dr. Ayoob.

This mechanism of action in the body could lead to a decrease of cholesterol levels in blood, which has been tested in some clinical trials.

“[In a very small study], men who consumed 12 grams of xanthan gum per day for three weeks had a 10% reduction in cholesterol compared to the control group, [4] Eastwood MA, Brydon WG, Anderson DM. The dietary effects of xanthan gum in man . Food Addit Contam. 1987;4(1):17-26. ” notes Ayesta.

Another study tested a viscous fiber from konjac (a root vegetable) and xanthan gum on estimated reduction in heart disease likelihood in people with a greater chance of heart disease. Several major risk factors for heart disease were lowered, including LDL (bad) blood cholesterol. Researchers estimated a lowered risk of heart disease by an average of 22%. [5] Vuksan V, er al. Effect of soluble-viscous dietary fibre on coronary heart disease risk score across 3 population health categories: data from randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials . Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2020;45(7):801-804.

The scientific literature on xanthan gum and cholesterol consists of several smaller, older studies that need to be replicated in other populations with more realistic amounts found in today’s food supply to further confirm any health impact.

Weight Management

“Xanthan gum can increase feelings of fullness, which could potentially help with weight management by reducing overall calorie intake ,” suggests Ayesta.

Because of these properties, xanthan gum is widely used to replace and lower the amount of dietary fat in many food products, adds Dr. Dey.

But, there is some conflicting evidence on the role xanthan gum may play in helping you feel full.

A group of European scientists reviewed three studies in relation to claims xanthan gum can help with appetite control, and found no evidence of a cause and effect relationship. [6] EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to xanthan gum and increased satiety (ID 838) pursuant to Article 13 (1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 . EFSA Journal. 2010;8(2):1481.

Much of the scientific work on xanthan gum and weight management or appetite control has been done in animal models or older human clinical trials, so researchers need to better understand this relationship.

Swallowing Difficulty

Research shows xanthan gum is beneficial in thickening liquids, making it friendly for people with swallowing difficulty, notes Gans.

Dysphagia is the medical term for trouble with swallowing. Oftentimes, people with dysphagia struggle to eat or drink enough, which can exacerbate health problems.

When xanthan gum is added to products for people with swallowing difficulty as a thickener, it helps increase the viscosity of foods and drinks to prevent choking.

Xanthan gum provides people who have difficulty swallowing great access to a large array of food and drink options with better texture and safety profile, which could help in ensuring daily nutrition and hydration needs are met in a tasty and familiar way.

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The FDA is the government organization responsible for regulating the safety of food ingredients, additives and colors in the U.S. food supply.

Xanthan gum may be safely used in foods, drinks or other applications according to the FDA, although there isn’t any mention of any limitation on dosage allowance, notes Dr. Dey.

Some people should be aware of consuming xanthan gum in large amounts, and could benefit from limiting their intake, including the following groups.

People With Food Allergies

The source of sugar used to make xanthan gum may not be easily known, which could cause concern for individuals who are allergic to wheat, corn, soy or dairy, adds Gans.

“The final product, however, is typically free from these allergens,” adds Ayesta.

It’s still crucial for individuals with severe food allergies to consult with their health care professional before consuming products with xanthan gum, he explains.

People Taking Certain Medications

“Large amounts of xanthan gum, used pharmacologically, may interact with certain medications,” adds Dr. Ayoob.

Some studies suggest that it’s possible for xanthan gum to lower the amount of medication your body absorbs.

Because xanthan gum decreases the amount of sugar your body can absorb from foods, people taking certain medications for diabetes should talk with a doctor if using it in large amounts.

It’s best to speak with a doctor or pharmacist about how any medications you may take could interact with xanthan gum.

People With Digestive Sensitivities

In some people—such as those living with an inflammatory bowel disease like ulcerative colitis—eating larger amounts of xanthan gum could cause digestive discomfort. For most people without any preexisting digestive sensitivities, any side effects are generally mild and decrease over time as the body adjusts, according to experts.

Roughly 15 grams per day or more of xanthan gum could have a laxative effect, suggests Dr. Ayoob. Anyone using this amount should do so only under the direction of their primary health care provider, he explains.

People with a history of bowel obstruction should avoid xanthan gum due to its fiber-like properties, notes Ayesta.

It’s important to put the use of xanthan gum as a food additive into perspective compared to its use as a dietary supplement.

Compared to dietary supplements, it’s very unlikely that you’d eat large quantities of xanthan gum at any given time because it’s used in such small amounts in most foods in the food supply.

“For example, salad dressing typically contains less than 0.5% of xanthan gum,” notes Dr. Clemens. If a dressing has a serving size of 2 tablespoons, that’s about 0.15 grams of xanthan gum, which is about 1/100th of the level that may trigger gastrointestinal distress in some people, he suggests.

In general, most people can safely consume foods or drinks with xanthan gum.

However, if you notice any adverse reactions or have a health condition that may need you to limit intake of xanthan gum, it’s always best to seek advice from a health care professional.

• EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS), et al. Re-evaluation of xanthan gum (E 415) as a food additive. EFSA J. 2017;15(7):e04909.
• Ostrowski MP, et al. Mechanistic insights into consumption of the food additive xanthan gum by the human gut microbiota. Nat Microbiol. 2022;7(4):556-569.
• Alshammari NA, et al. Effect of intake of food hydrocolloids of bacterial origin on the glycemic response in humans: Systematic review and narrative synthesis. Nutrients. 2021;13(7):2407.
• Eastwood MA, Brydon WG, Anderson DM. The dietary effects of xanthan gum in man. Food Addit Contam. 1987;4(1):17-26.
• Vuksan V, er al. Effect of soluble-viscous dietary fibre on coronary heart disease risk score across 3 population health categories: data from randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2020;45(7):801-804.
• EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to xanthan gum and increased satiety (ID 838) pursuant to Article 13 (1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. EFSA Journal. 2010;8(2):1481.
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Xanthan gum-based fluid thickener can lower blood glucose levels after eating, study shows

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Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a common lifestyle disease that is prevalent worldwide. It can often lead to complications, such as diseases of the heart, and increased risk of death, but preventive measures, such as a healthy diet, can reduce these risks. Now, a study in Japan has shown that xanthan gum-based fluid thickener can lower blood glucose levels after eating.

Several studies have shown that heart diseases and metabolic disorders, such as Type 2 diabetes, are associated with the blood glucose levels after eating. However, certain foods, like the condiment vinegar, are reported to help decrease these levels if eaten with a meal. Another food product that produces a similar effect are dietary fibers. These fibers are also known to increase insulin response, improve fat metabolism, and have positive effects on the gut microbiome .

One such soluble fiber, xanthan gum, is used in a range of foods, including fluid thickeners, to prevent aspiration (choking) for patients who have difficulty swallowing. However, the biological effects of fluid thickener on postprandial blood glucose levels, gene expression in the gastrointestinal tract, and gut microbiome have not been fully clarified. The purpose of this study was to determine whether fluid thickeners have additional effects, particularly on postprandial blood glucose levels related to gene expression in the gastrointestinal tract and gut microbiome.

The rats were divided into two groups; those that were administered liquid thickened with a xanthan gum-based fluid thickener or saline for 5 weeks. Oral glucose tolerance test was performed 4 weeks after the beginning of the experiment. The blood glucose levels of rats were measured before glucose was given and at set intervals afterwards. The RNA from different parts of the gastrointestinal system tissues were collected for qPCR method. Thereafter, the gene expression in the ileum and gut microbiome were comprehensively analyzed using a next-generation sequencer, which enables a comprehensive analysis of the amount of gene expression and DNA derived from microorganisms by decoding large quantities of DNA sequences at high speed.

Results showed that blood glucose levels at 60 and 90 minutes after being given glucose were significantly lower in rats given thickened liquid.

The mechanism by which this happened is very interesting. Giving thickened liquid decreased blood glucose levels associated with Glp1 and Glp1r expression in the ileum." Haruka Tohara, Senior Author

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Furthermore, comprehensive analysis revealed that cholesterol homeostasis, fatty acid metabolism, and glucose metabolism were enriched in the ileum.

Gut microbial composition was also altered after drinking the said thickened liquid. There was an increase in the numbers of two 'good' intestinal bacteria, Erysipelotrichales and Christensenellaceae , which is associated with Glp1 and Glp1r expression in the ileum. These bacteria produce short-chain fatty acids that protect intestinal and pancreatic cells, which assist insulin secretion.

Type 2 diabetes and heart disease are global phenomena that are increasing in many parts of the world. This research showed that xanthan gum-based fluid thickener can prevent aspiration and also assist in the improvement of glucose and lipid metabolism.

Tokyo Medical and Dental University

Nagasawa, Y., et al. (2022) Xanthan gum-based fluid thickener decreases postprandial blood glucose associated with increase of Glp1 and Glp1r expression in ileum and alteration of gut microbiome. Journal of Functional Foods. doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2022.105321 .

Posted in: Medical Research News | Biochemistry | Medical Condition News

Tags: Bacteria , Blood , Choking , Cholesterol , Diabetes , Diabetes Mellitus , Diet , DNA , Dysphagia , Fatty Acids , Food , Gastrointestinal Tract , Gene , Gene Expression , GLP1 , Glucose , Glucose Metabolism , Heart , Heart Disease , Insulin , Metabolic Disorders , Metabolism , Microbiome , Research , RNA , Short-Chain Fatty Acids , Swallowing , Type 2 Diabetes

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Water‐soluble polymers in agriculture: xanthan gum as eco‐friendly alternative to synthetics

Teresa berninger.

1 Jungbunzlauer Ladenburg GmbH, Dr.‐Albert‐Reimann‐Str. 18, Ladenburg 68526 Germany

Natalie Dietz

Óscar gonzález lópez.

2 Department of Agriculture and Food, Universidad de la Rioja, C/Madre de Dios 53, Logroño 26006 Spain

Water‐soluble polymers (WSPs) are a versatile group of chemicals used across industries for different purposes such as thickening, stabilizing, adhesion and gelation. Synthetic polymers have tailored characteristics and are chemically homogeneous, whereas plant‐derived biopolymers vary more widely in their specifications and are chemically heterogeneous. Between both sources, microbial polysaccharides are an advantageous compromise. They combine naturalness with defined material properties, precisely controlled by optimizing strain selection, fermentation operational parameters and downstream processes. The relevance of such bio‐based and biodegradable materials is rising due to increasing environmental awareness of consumers and a tightening regulatory framework, causing both solid and water‐soluble synthetic polymers, also termed ‘microplastics’, to have come under scrutiny. Xanthan gum is the most important microbial polysaccharide in terms of production volume and diversity of applications, and available as different grades with specific properties. In this review, we will focus on the applicability of xanthan gum in agriculture (drift control, encapsulation and soil improvement), considering its potential to replace traditionally used synthetic WSPs. As a spray adjuvant, xanthan gum prevents the formation of driftable fine droplets and shows particular resistance to mechanical shear. Xanthan gum as a component in encapsulated formulations modifies release properties or provides additional protection to encapsulated agents. In geotechnical engineering, soil amended with xanthan gum has proven to increase water retention, reduce water evaporation, percolation and soil erosion – topics of high relevance in the agriculture of the 21st century. Finally, hands‐on formulation tips are provided to facilitate exploiting the full potential of xanthan gum in diverse agricultural applications and thus providing sustainable solutions.

Synthetic water‐soluble polymers are used for different purposes in agriculture, but there are increasing concerns regarding their environmental impact. Microbial polysaccharides obtained by industrial fermentation are a sustainable, eco‐friendly alternative with precisely controlled material characteristics. This is shown on the example of xanthan gum applied for soil improvement, drift control and encapsulation.

Introduction

Efficiency in agriculture is continuously being improved by the implementation of new and high‐performance materials. These are applied to beneficially modify the properties of soil, water, fertilizers and plant protection products.

One important class of chemical compounds are WSPs, which are widely used as thickeners, stabilizers and binders. Being of synthetic origin, their properties can be tailored and precisely controlled to obtain versatile functionalities and high reliability in performance. However, despite their high molecular weight, synthetic WSPs can break down over time into potentially toxic and carcinogenic monomers like in the case of polyacrylamides (Xiong et al ., 2018 ). Their degradation is usually slow and has been estimated to be around 10% per year (Hennecke et al ., 2018 ), which may result in deleterious effects on the environment. Due to a lack of analytical methods for the quantification of WSPs in environmental matrices, this impact is still under debate, but has been compared to issues caused by solid microplastics nowadays (Huppertsberg et al ., 2020 ). In the case of synthetic WSPs, the research is still on the very beginning (Arp and Knutsen, 2019 ). Therefore, they have come under scrutiny by environmental protection agencies and regulatory bodies. Regulatory pressure peaked when the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) published its proposal for a restriction of intentionally added microplastics in January 2019 (ECHA European Chemicals Agency, 2019 ), which in its initial version comprised not only solids, but also synthetic WSPs in the definition of microplastics. Although in the latest version these are not comprised any more, researchers have further emphasized the importance of considering synthetic WSPs in the risk evaluation and regulating their release into the environment (Arp and Knutsen, 2019 ). With consumers becoming more and more aware of the broadened scope of microplastics, re‐formulation efforts are intensifying to avoid the use of synthetic WSPs, especially in the cosmetics and home care segment. In the agricultural sector, manufacturers face additional regulatory changes. According to the new Regulation (EU) 2019/1009, non‐nutrient polymers used in fertilizing products for the EU market will have to comply with biodegradability criteria (The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union, 2019 ). In practice, this means that non‐biodegradable polymers used for controlled nutrient release or improved water retention will have to be replaced by biodegradable alternatives.

In view of recent findings on the presence of solid microplastic particles in drinking water (Pivokonsky et al ., 2018 ; Eerkes‐Medrano et al ., 2019 ; Novotna et al ., 2019 ) and fresh produce (Oliveri Conti et al ., 2020 ), it is not unlikely that retailers will increasingly be confronted with end consumers calling for ‘zero residue’ products – also referring to microplastic residues. This may push for farming practices, in which only biodegradable, eco‐friendly co‐formulants, adjuvants, technological processing aids or soil amendments are used. Furthermore, the future might bring about stricter regulations on carbon emissions, thus favouring natural solutions over synthetic polymers of petrochemical origin.

These regulatory and market developments promote the search for biodegradable and environmentally friendly WSPs, which degrade into non‐contaminating compounds. One alternative to synthetic polymers are natural polysaccharides. They can be subdivided into two main categories: the starch‐based and non‐starch polysaccharides. Non‐starch polysaccharides can be obtained from plants (e.g. guar gum, locust bean gum, pectin), by microbial fermentation (e.g. xanthan gum and gellan gum), from animal origin (e.g. chitosan and gelatin) or from marine plants (e.g. alginate and carrageenan) (Nobre et al ., 2015 ). Plant‐derived polysaccharides often struggle with fluctuating availability, yearly production and variations in their chemical characteristics. Their production is relatively cheap but season‐dependent and taking place under uncontrolled environmental conditions (Giavasis, 2013 ). In contrast, polysaccharides derived from microbial fermentation are bio‐synthesized under precisely controlled conditions, requiring limited space and production time. This results in stable chemical characteristics with narrow specifications and a high purity. It also ensures broad availability in the market. Therefore, microbial polysaccharides unite the aspects of naturalness and compound quality in a unique manner.

Elaborating on the potential of one of the most prominent microbial polysaccharides, xanthan gum, to replace synthetic WSPs, we will look briefly into the function of microbial polysaccharides in nature, the transfer to industrial production and how the fermentation process can be fine‐tuned to create products with distinct properties. We will discuss the use of xanthan gum in relevant technical applications and summarize further aspects influencing the performance of xanthan gum in a formulation.

Microbial polysaccharides: functionalities and their applicability in industry

In nature, microbial polysaccharides occur as essential components of biofilms. Biofilms are considered the main support of the oldest, most widely distributed and successful form of life on earth (Flemming, et al ., 2016b ), and the predominant form of microorganisms lifestyle (Cavalcante et al ., 2017 ; Penesyan et al ., 2019 ). These biofilms are aggregates of microorganisms, in which cells are embedded within a self‐produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) (Vert et al ., 2012 ; Flemming, et al ., 2016b ). This matrix is mainly composed of polysaccharides, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids (Powell et al ., 2018 ), but the relative composition and molecular structure of components vary depending on the producing microorganism and environmental conditions. This fact can be exploited in industrial fermentation to obtain a range of microbial polysaccharides with different properties. Apart from xanthan gum, commercially relevant microbial exopolysaccharides include gellan gum produced by Sphingomonas paucimobilis (Giavasis et al ., 2000 ), pullulan synthesized by Aureobasidium pullulans (Cheng et al ., 2011 ) and welan gum obtained from Alicaligenes sp. (Kaur et al ., 2014 ).

Microorganisms produce polysaccharides for different purposes, many of which can be transferred to technological applications:

• i. Adhesive and structural properties : One of the most important functions of microbial polysaccharides is to increase the adhesion capacity of microorganisms to each other and to surfaces (Smith et al ., 2016 ; Alaa, 2018 ). This adhesive characteristic also facilitates cell‐to‐cell interactions (Dos Santos et al ., 2018 ). In addition, polysaccharides provide a structure with viscoelastic properties to increase resistance of the biofilm to mechanical challenges (Peterson et al ., 2015 ). Taking advantage of this mechanism, increasing the viscosity of aqueous liquids is one of the most relevant uses of purified microbial polysaccharides in technical applications. Furthermore, adhesion of particles to each other or to a target site is a central aim in different applications.
• ii. Protection from environment: Biofilms help microorganisms to protect themselves in extreme environments (Yin et al ., 2019 ), against ultraviolet radiation (UV) (de Carvalho, 2017 ), extreme temperatures (Smith et al ., 2016 ; Kent et al ., 2018 ), pH variations (Narayanan et al ., 2016 ), salinity or drought stress (Alaa, 2018 ; Wang et al ., 2019 ) and limitation of nutrients (Gingichashvili et al ., 2020 ). In general, a biofilm can be described as a protective matrix in which both the polysaccharide‐producing microorganisms and co‐living cells are encapsulated. Looking at the industry, encapsulation is a relevant strategy in formulation of active agents to enhance their stability and ensure controlled release and improved efficacy. Additionally, the water retention capacity of polysaccharides can be utilized to support biological processes.
• iii. Nutrient availability: Biofilms are a source of nutrients able to be used by the biofilm community (Flemming et al ., 2016a ). They also facilitate the uptake and accumulation of nutrients from the environment (Kurniawan and Yamamoto, 2019 ). Latest studies described a channel structure in E. coli biofilms that allows for a distribution of nutrients through the biofilm (Rooney et al ., 2020 ). This channel structure could potentially be used as new route for plant nutrient availability and could have implications for the use of microbial polysaccharides in encapsulation.

Considering these functionalities, humans can imitate nature and use microbial polysaccharides with different purposes. We will depict the potential of xanthan gum in three relevant applications in agriculture:

Soil improvement: The water holding capacity and adhesiveness of xanthan gum open a wide field of uses in soil improvement, for example to ameliorate drought stress of plants and reduce erosion.

Drift control: The capacity of xanthan gum to modify the rheology of liquids and to increase adhesiveness is important in the effectiveness of foliar applications.

Encapsulation: In this formulation approach, which is highly relevant for the growing market of biostimulants and biocontrol agents, xanthan gum is a natural surrogate to protect microorganisms, thus potentially improving performance of the formulations.

Xanthan gum: Origin and structure

Isolated for the first time in 1959 (Jeanes et al ., 1961 ), xanthan gum is an EPS produced by different Xanthomonas spp. Even though mainly X . campestris strains are used in the production of xanthan gum, it can be also obtained from other Xanthomonas spp., like X . citri subsp. citri (Conforte et al ., 2019 ), X. hortorum or X. axonopodis (Demirci et al ., 2019 ).

Being a heteropolysaccharide, the primary structure consists of a cellulose‐like backbone of β‐1,4‐linked glucose units, substituted alternately with a trisaccharide side chain (Jansson et al ., 1967 ). This side chain is composed of two mannose units separated by a glucuronic acid, where the internal mannose is mostly O‐acetylated and the terminal mannose may be substituted by a pyruvic acid residue (Fig.  1 ). Due to the presence of glucuronic and pyruvic acid in the side chain, xanthan gum represents a highly charged polysaccharide with a very rigid polymer backbone. It has a high molecular weight of about 2 × 10 6 to 2 × 10 7  g mol ‐1 with a narrow distribution. Variations in fermentation conditions used in the production can influence the molecular weight of xanthan gum (Casas et al ., 2000 ). Via X‐ray Powder Diffraction (XRD) measurements, the secondary structure of xanthan gum could be elucidated as a five‐fold helical conformation, where the backbone is stabilized by the side chains (Moorhouse et al ., 1977 ).

Haworth formula of xanthan gum. The backbone consists of β‐1,4‐linked glucose units with a trisaccharide side chain whose terminal mannose unit is linked fifty–fifty to a pyruvate group and the non‐terminal residue usually carries an acetyl group. Redrawn from (Sworn, 2009 ).

As a naturally occurring microbial polysaccharide, xanthan gum can be biodegraded into oligosaccharides, monosaccharides and ultimately water and carbon dioxide. The depolymerization of the polysaccharide is achieved by enzymatic attack, mainly xanthanase (endo‐β‐d‐glucanase) (Cadmus et al ., 1982 ) and xanthan lyase (Sutherland, 1987 ) secreted by other microorganisms. Production of xanthan gum degrading enzymes has been observed, e.g. in Bacillus (Cadmus et al ., 1982 ), Paenibacillus (Ashraf et al ., 2018 ) , Enterobacter (Chen et al ., 2014 ) and Cellumonas (Liu et al ., 2005 ). While it was found that for a complete depolymerization into monosaccharides, as many as five enzymes are required (Nankai et al ., 1999 ), even a partial reduction in polymerization can be sufficient to reduce viscosity and functionality of xanthan gum (Chen et al ., 2014 ). The speed of degradation depends on the presence of microorganisms producing relevant enzymes and environmental conditions (Hovland, 2015 ). For example, xanthan gum was shown to be degraded by bacteria of activated sludge within 7 days (Muchová et al ., 2009 ). Unpublished own data confirm this fast degradation, showing a degradation by 78% within 28 days measured by a manometric respiratory test according to OECD test guideline 301F. On the other hand, some authors observed a certain resistance of xanthan gum to microbial degradation in the range of several months (Cadmus et al ., 1982 ; Hovland, 2015 ). This is beneficial when a long‐term effect of xanthan gum is desired, such as in soil application.

Xanthan gum: industrial production

Xanthan gum is one of the industrially most relevant microbial polysaccharides. Compared with other microbial polysaccharides, its price is competitive and it is therefore a viable option not only regarding performance but also from an economic point of view (Chang et al ., 2020 ). The main manufacturers of xanthan gum are Jungbunzlauer, ADM, Cargill, CP Kelco, Deosen Biochemicals, Fufeng Group, IFF (Dupont) and Meihua Group.

The production of xanthan gum can be separated into two main steps as shown in Fig.  2 . The whole production starts with the fermentation step, where simple carbohydrate molecules are metabolized by X. campestris to synthesize xanthan gum. For this, X. campestris strain is cultured in a well‐aerated and well‐agitated fermenter and is expanded by growth on solid surfaces or in liquid media to obtain the inoculum (Katzbauer, 1998 ; Garcia‐Ochoa et al ., 2000 ). Apart from the precise medium composition, factors such as type of bioreactor used, mode of operation (batch or continuous), medium composition, and culture conditions (temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen concentration) have an influence on the growth of the microorganism and xanthan gum production. Culture environment and operational conditions also influence the molecular structure of xanthan gum. There is extensive literature on the production conditions, medium composition, used microorganism and how these can be improved (Garcia‐Ochoa et al ., 2000 ; Rosalam and England, 2006 ; Rottava et al ., 2009 ; Palaniraj and Jayaraman, 2011 ; Lopes De Mônaco et al ., 2015 ; Habibi and Khosravi‐Darani, 2017 ). The main parameters to adjust yield and molecular structure are related to nutrients content, temperature and production kinetics. X. campestris needs several micronutrients (e.g. sodium, potassium, iron and calcium salts) and macronutrients such as carbon (glucose or fructose) and nitrogen to produce xanthan gum. At the end of the fermentation, the broth is pasteurized to inactivate the microorganisms.

Xanthan gum production steps: fermentation, pasteurization, precipitation with IPA (isopropanol), decantation, dehydration, drying, milling/sifting, packaging.

The second step in production is a comprehensive recovery process including precipitation, drying and milling. The xanthan gum is recovered by precipitation with water‐miscible non‐solvents such as isopropyl alcohol and further purified by pH adjustments (Garcia‐Ochoa et al ., 2000 ). These recovery steps can vary depending on the desired purity and quality of the xanthan gum product, which in turn determines the end use, e.g. in oil, technical, food, personal care or pharma applications. For example, for xanthan gum to be applied as food additive, it should be free from viable cells of X. campestris and reagents used in the recovery process. For personal care or pharma applications, even stricter purity requirements are in place, because active enzymes still present after an inadequate recovery may influence the final application. Once the polysaccharide is obtained as a wet precipitate, it is dried in batch or continuous dryers, under vacuum or with forced circulation of an inert gas. Most commercial xanthan gum products have a final moisture content of about 10–15%. After drying, the polysaccharide is milled to a predetermined mesh size and in some cases agglomerated to control dispersability and dissolution rates. Prior to packaging, xanthan gum routinely undergoes a quality control in which viscosity, microbial plate count and heavy metal residues are examined to comply with product specifications.

Further optimization of the xanthan gum production process is a subject of ongoing research. Apart from ‘traditional’ approaches such as optimizing growth conditions, the use of agro‐industrial, organic by‐products as a sustainable, alternative nutrient source is an interesting aspect (Murad et al ., 2019 ). In this sense, a variety of waste materials has been evaluated, for example shrimp shell (De Sousa Costa et al ., 2014 ), lignocellulosic waste such as coconut shell and cocoa husk (da Silva et al ., 2018 ) as well as chicken feather peptone and sugar beet molasses (Ozdal and Kurbanoglu, 2019 ). Nevertheless, the transfer of these approaches to industrial scale is limited, since the choice of the nutrient source is tightly coupled to considerations regarding supply security and continuously high raw material quality, absence of impurities and required upstream processes.

Regarding production optimization, it has also been found that xanthan gum molecular properties such the substitution pattern with acetyl and pyruvate groups and thus rheological behaviour can be fine‐tuned on a genetic level (Gansbiller et al ., 2019 ). Strain genetic engineering also proved feasible to increase whiteness of the xanthan gum product while using lower amounts of ethanol in the downstream processing (Dai et al ., 2019 ). However, on an industrial scale, this approach may be prohibitive due to regulatory compliance and product labelling. Therefore, several producers of xanthan gum, including Jungbunzlauer, guarantee a GMO‐free production process.

Xanthan gum: general applications and properties

Dissolved in cold water, xanthan gum produces highly viscous solutions with a weak gel character. It has long been used as a thickener or suspending agent in food applications such as salad dressings, sauces, instant products, desserts, bakery, dairy products and fruit juices as well as in various low‐calorie foods. In cosmetics, xanthan gum serves as stabilizer and thickener, for example in toothpastes, creams, lotions, gels and shampoos. It is also relevant for pharmaceutical applications, modifying drug release from delivery systems such as tablets, films, hydrogels and nanoformulations (Cortes et al ., 2020 ) and potential base material in tissue engineering (Petri, 2015 ; Kumar et al ., 2018 ). Typical industrial applications of xanthan gum are in cleaners, paints, ceramic glazes, inks, oil drilling fluids or agricultural flowables (Katzbauer, 1998 ). More specifically, the latter comprise suspension concentrates (SC) and flowable concentrates for seed treatment (FS) type of formulations, in which xanthan gum is widely used.

Due to its strong polyelectrolyte nature, xanthan gum solutions are highly viscous even at very low concentrations. Under shearing, xanthan gum solutions show a strong pseudoplastic behaviour, i.e. the viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate (Milas et al ., 1990 ). The viscosity depends on polymer concentration, temperature, salt and pH. The viscosity of xanthan gum solutions increases strongly with increasing concentration of the polymer. With increasing temperature, the viscosity declines caused by a conformational transition from a rigid helical to a flexible coil molecular structure (Norton et al ., 1984 ). The presence of salts in solution influences the xanthan gum viscosity. At low polysaccharide concentration (approximately < 0.3 wt%), the viscosity decreases when a small amount of salt (approximately < 0.1 wt%) is added, whereas at higher xanthan gum concentration or when a larger amount of salt is added, the viscosity increases (Zatz and Knapp, 1984 ). Xanthan gum as an anionic polysaccharide exhibits a certain sensitivity to pH changes since its charge density is changed and therefore the molecular associations between the single molecules are influenced (Pastor et al ., 1994 ).

Commercially, there are different xanthan gum grades available, offering different distinct properties (Table  1 ). They can be classified according to their purity, particle size and rheological performance. The purity of the available grades refers to microbiological plate count, residual isopropanol (IPA) and heavy metal contaminations, but does not impact flow and stabilization behaviour. The particle size or granulation of xanthan gum strongly influences the hydrating and dispersing performance. A fine granulation results in a fast hydration but with the compromise of a worse dispersibility due to a higher tendency to form lumps. Coarser granulations hydrate slower, but are easier to disperse. There is also an agglomerated xanthan gum available on the market allowing for an easy dispersion without the formation of lumps. This grade is especially suited if no or low performance mixers are used for hydration (Fig.  3 ).

Compilation of possible modifications of xanthan gum, resulting properties and their relevance for agricultural applications (own data).

Model curves of viscosity build‐up of xanthan gum of two different particle structures, added to distilled H 2 O at 0.3% [w/v]. The agglomerated grade reaches 90% of the maximum viscosity after approx. 115 s. The standard grade reaches 90% of the maximum viscosity after approx. 810 s.

Different rheological properties may be important for applications containing high amounts of salts, with highly acidic conditions or where specific smooth flow properties are desired in the end product. Here, the commercial market offers different possibilities including, e.g. particularly salt‐tolerant xanthan gum or xanthan gum exhibiting a reduced pseudoplastic flow behaviour (Fig.  4 ). Salt‐tolerant xanthan gum has been developed for use with high concentrations of salt (up to 20% NaCl) maintaining an excellent viscosity forming potential. A typical technical application example is the formulation of fire retardants, where high concentrations of ammonium phosphates are present in combination with colouring particles of iron oxide, which need stabilization. In the food industry, salt‐tolerant xanthan gum is used in sauces and dressings with high salt content.

Model flow curves of solutions of 0.1% [w/v] different xanthan gum grades in standard tap water (1 g l ‐1 NaCl, 0.15 g l ‐1 CaCl 2 ·2H 2 O). Typical application‐related shear rates are denoted. Differences in apparent viscosity are particularly pronounced in the low shear regime with implications for grade selection depending on desired behaviour.

Besides the rheological properties, the transparency of the xanthan gum solution or the dusting of the xanthan gum powder can be adjusted by different special grades. Clear solution xanthan gum, e.g. shows the same functional rheological properties as standard xanthan gum but allows the preparation of transparent solutions. Transparency is obtained by an additional treatment to remove cell residues. Dust free xanthan gum has been developed to avoid dusting during handling in industrial processes. The product is treated with 1% of an edible oil to bind the smallest particles and thus eliminate dust formation.

The availability of such different xanthan gum grades gives formulators the opportunity to select the material to best match the specific application requirements.

Soil improvement with xanthan gum

Soil improvement or soil conditioning describes a wide range of activities to modify soil characteristics according to specific needs. In general, this term has been used mostly in the context of soil physical properties in geotechnical engineering (Mirzababaei et al ., 2017 ; Armistead et al ., 2020 ; Chen et al ., 2020 ), but also in agriculture (Majeed et al ., 2018 ), forestry (Stöcker et al ., 2020 ) and other fields. Therefore, soil improvement is not restricted to a specific industry and could be defined as the modification of any soil property by any method. In this sense, soil modifications can be of physical, chemical or biological nature (Molnár et al ., 2016 ; Cheng et al ., 2017 ; Oliveira et al ., 2017 ; de Melo et al ., 2019 ; Jiang et al ., 2020 ).

Due to their diversity and versatility, polymers are a group of widely used materials for soil improvement purposes. Specifically, in agriculture, the use of polymers is self‐evident, since their mode of action resembles the functions of the microbial polysaccharides produced by the soil microbiota. Simulating those functions, polymers are applied to the soil mainly in order to: (i) modify water retention capacity (superabsorbents) (Vundavalli et al ., 2015 ), (ii) improve soil structure or physical characteristics (Yang and Antonietti, 2020 ), (iii) as a controlled release system for fertilizers or phytochemicals (Guilherme et al ., 2015 ; Tran et al ., 2018 ), (iv) in soil remediation for removal of heavy metals (Guo et al ., 2020 ) and oil contamination (Cao et al ., 2016 ; Jung and Hu, 2017 ) or (v) as a biocide (Chauhan, 2019 ).

We will focus on the use of polymers and specifically xanthan gum to improve water retention and plant development. In face of an increasing need to use scarce water sources more efficiently, the number of research publications and the commercialization of polymers for soil improvement has grown in the last years (Milani et al ., 2017 ), underlining the relevance of this topic.

Superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) or hydrogels are cross‐linked hydrophilic polymers able to absorb significant quantities of water of up to 1000 times their dry weight (Li et al ., 2014 ; Lejcuś et al ., 2018 ). By binding a large amount of water in the soil and making it available to the plants for longer periods, crop yields can be improved, especially in arid regions (Hou et al ., 2018 ; Satriani et al ., 2018 ; Jahan and Nassiri Mahallati, 2020 ).

At the moment, the most relevant SAPs for soil application are potassium polyacrylates, but also other polyacrylates and polyacrylamides as well as their cross‐linked derivatives. Non‐soluble, cross‐linked SAPs are incorporated into the soil either in a powder form by homogeneously mixing during ploughing, or already hydrated, using specific machinery allowing its injection at high pressure into the soil. The use of synthetic SAPs is common despite their slow degradation and the potential release of toxic compounds. For example, polyacrylamide can degrade into acrylamide monomers over time, which are known as toxins and potential carcinogens (Xiong et al ., 2018 ).

The increasing awareness about these drawbacks of synthetic SAPs has triggered a demand for biopolymers to be used as readily biodegradable, environmental‐friendly SAPs. In this sense, different biopolymers such as cellulose, starch, guar gum, alginate and chitosan as well as composites have been investigated. Some examples are biodegradable and biocompatible SAP made from two cellulose derivatives, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMCNa) and hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), using citric acid as cross‐linking agent (Montesano et al ., 2015 ; Thombare et al ., 2018 ; Saruchi et al ., 2019 ).

Xanthan gum has an extraordinary water binding capacity in comparison with other microbial polysaccharides (Wallingford and Labuza, 1983 ; Sánchez et al ., 1995 ) and it is thus a suitable candidate to be used as SAP. Its suitability as soil improver has been demonstrated in geotechnical engineering, improving soil mechanical properties (Dehghan et al ., 2019 ) such as soil strengthening and stabilization (Chang et al ., 2015a ; Latifi et al ., 2017 ; Dehghan et al ., 2019 ). Results with xanthan gum are remarkable in many cases when compared to other polysaccharides (Soldo et al ., 2020 ). In engineering, xanthan gum application rates lay normally between 0.5 and 4%. Nevertheless, positive effects can already be observed when using concentrations of xanthan gum as low as 0.1% (Chen et al ., 2019 ).

The improved water retention can be ascribed to the formation of a crystallized top soil layer promoted by the microbial polysaccharide after drying, which maintains moisture in the inner bulk soil (Chen et al ., 2019 ). These results were particularly pronounced in sandy soils, where the initial water content after saturation doubled when as little as 0.5% of xanthan gum was added, delaying also water drainage (Tran et al ., 2018 ). Moreover, positive results were observed in other substrates. Xanthan gum at a concentration of 0.5% outperformed starch in terms of water retention and plant survival under drought stress, using Korean standard poor graded sand (Tran et al ., 2019 ). Also, on silty soils and garden substrates, xanthan gum has proven a suitable amendment in order to increase water retention, seed germination and plant growth (Abobatta, 2018 ; Chang et al ., 2020 ). Another beneficial effect is the reduction of soil erosion on different soils (Chang et al ., 2015b ).

From a practical point of view, xanthan gum has the advantage of being able to be applied as a water‐based solution. Xanthan gum is not only compatible with diverse irrigation methods like drop by drop or sprinklers, but also is an effective drag reducer, decreasing frictions in the flow of the irrigation water (Han and Choi, 2017 ). This implies a potential double function of xanthan gum in irrigation.

In the case of application of SAPs as a dry powder, their hydration capacity and hydration speed are affected by the depth they are delivered to, i.e. the soil load they bear. Increasing loads simulating different depths resulted in a significant reduction in the capacity of the SAPs to absorb water (Lejcuś et al ., 2018 ). This makes xanthan gum a more efficient and thus potentially less costly solution.

One of the main problems regarding studies on xanthan gum in soil amendment is that frequently, a similar concentration range is used for agriculture‐related applications as for geotechnical engineering. This could result in some phenomena like cemented soil, in which plant growth or seed germination can be negatively affected (Tran et al ., 2019 ). Also, the use of high concentrations of xanthan gum can cause clogging of soil pores, resulting in a slow infiltration of the xanthan gum (Chang et al ., 2020 ). These properties are desired in soil engineering, but not in agriculture, so the approach for both applications needs to be different (Rahbari et al ., 2016 ).

While xanthan gum has proven to confer beneficial effects by its own, latest studies have investigated the possibility to cross‐link it with other compounds, resulting in similar characteristics as synthetic SAPs. Composite materials have shown potential to be used to control the release of fertilizers (Singh and Dhaliwal, 2020 ), to improve the development of Camelina sativa L. under drought stress conditions (Lim et al ., 2018 ) or to enhance water retention capacity (Feng et al ., 2014 ).

The increasing impact of climate change, as well as the limited availability of water and good quality soils, will make soil improvement techniques more and more important in the future. Xanthan gum as an eco‐friendly and sustainable polymer is one of the most promising materials to be used in agriculture, both conventional and organic.

Drift control – potential replacement of synthetic polymers by xanthan gum

The delivery of pesticides as liquids to the plant foliage constitutes a highly relevant pathway of pesticide treatments. Across all techniques of spray delivery, unwanted drift compromises on safety and efficacy, causing losses of up to 10% (De Ruiter et al ., 2003 ). Drift control measures include the incorporation of drift control adjuvants (DCAs) into the spray liquid. These aim to reduce the fraction of droplets with a diameter < 100–200 µm, generally referred to as driftable fines (Hilz and Vermeer, 2013 ). Frequently, WSPs of high molecular weight ranging around 10 6  g mol ‐1 are used, such as polyacrylamide (PAM), polyethyleneoxide (PEO), polyvinylppyrrolidon (PVP) and polysaccharides (Spanoghe et al ., 2007 ; Lewis et al ., 2016 ). Even highly diluted, typically to 100–1000 ppm (Lewis et al ., 2016 ), these polymers are effective in delaying the break‐up of the spray sheet and reducing the formation of satellite droplets (Harrison et al ., 1999 ). Polymer rigidity strongly influences extensional viscosity in response to the strain the liquid experiences when ejected through a nozzle. Comparing 50 ppm solutions of PAM as a flexible polymer and xanthan gum as a rigid representative, Harrison et al . ( 1999 ) found a significant difference in the Trouton ratio of both materials. PAM reached a Trouton ratio (ƞ e /ƞ s ) of more than 20, while xanthan gum reached a value of 8. This indicates that even though rigid xanthan gum does induce a delay in the break‐up of the spray sheet, flexible polyacrylamide does so more efficiently.

In practice, however, integrity of the molecular structure and thus functionality of polymers is often an issue. DCAs experience continuous shear forces of between 50 s ‐1 during recirculation in the spray tank, reaching up to 10 5  s ‐1 at the nozzle outlet (De Ruiter et al ., 2003 ), resulting in breakage of molecules into smaller fractions (Lewis et al ., 2016 ). For example, using a 400 ppm solution of non‐ionic PEO, the volumetric percentage of droplets < 200 µm (% V  < 200 µm) grew from 5.1% before recirculation to 17.3% after recirculation. In contrast, xanthan gum only experienced a minor increase in % V  < 200 µm from 7.5 to 11.0 (Zhu et al ., 1997 ). Thus, xanthan gum shows a significantly higher resistance to mechanical stress and therefore better performance in drop size enhancement than many synthetic WSPs.

The molecular integrity and quick re‐build of viscosity of xanthan gum further benefit the deposition of droplets on the target surface, improving cling to leaf and reducing run‐off. Wang et al . ( 2018 ) demonstrated that the maximum retention [ml cm ‐ ³] of an aqueous surfactant solution on a 45° inclined maize leaf could be doubled by adding xanthan gum in concentrations as low as 0.05%. They also showed that the addition of xanthan gum significantly decreased the dynamic spreading [mm² s ‐1 ]. This implies the formation of more slowly evaporating ‘hot spots’ of AI (active ingredient), allowing for a higher concentration and longer contact time on the target surface (Flemmens et al ., 2018 ).

DCAs conferring a good droplet retention and moisture maintenance are also relevant in spray application of biocontrol agents. Biocompatibility of DCAs is a crucial requirement in this application (Peng et al ., 2000 ). Particularly, xanthan gum may take on the function of providing a protective, surrogate biofilm to live organisms. As shown for the spray application of entomopathogenic nematodes, both PVA and xanthan gum were compatible with nematode viability. In addition, xanthan gum at 0.3% had the benefit of retarding settlement (Beck et al ., 2013 ). Another study investigated the effect of xanthan gum, PAM and other adjuvants on the performance of fungal bioherbicides. In the model system Pyricularia setariae spores against green foxtail, xanthan gum showed the best compatibility among all tested adjuvants, improving spore germination from 75% in the control to 83%. In contrast, PAM decreased sporulation to 61%, resulting in a significant efficacy loss (Byer et al ., 2006 ).

Clearly, there are pros and cons of replacing synthetic WSPs by xanthan gum in drift control. Looking particularly at extensional viscosity, PAMs seem to be superior to xanthan gum. However, molecular stability under high mechanical stress conditions and full biocompatibility make xanthan gum a viable alternative not only for spray treatments with biologicals.

Encapsulation and controlled release formulations with xanthan gum

In an effort to improve safety and efficacy of agrochemicals, controlled release systems (CRS) are rising in popularity. In a CRS, AIs are immobilized in carriers to ensure the timely release on the target site, reduce loss into the environment and avoid exposure of the end‐user (Singh et al ., 2020 ). CRS may also refer to enhanced efficiency fertilizers (EEF), in which plant nutrients are formulated using coating or immobilization techniques (França et al ., 2019 ). Generally, the term CRS comprises manifold techniques and materials, which have been reviewed elsewhere (Campos et al ., 2015 ; Sinha et al ., 2019 ; Singh et al ., 2020 ).

Encapsulation is one of the most relevant techniques in CRS, with a broad application potential for polymers. Polymers from synthetic origin (polyamides, polyesters, polyvinylalcohol, polyurethane, polylactic acid etc.) and biopolymers (chitosan, sodium alginate, cyclodextrin, starch and cellulose) have been used (Sinha et al ., 2019 ; Singh et al ., 2020 ).

Generally being considered a non‐gelling polymer by itself, xanthan gum is rather underrepresented in studies investigating bio‐based encapsulation materials for CRS in agriculture. To the best of our knowledge, there are no studies comparing the use of synthetic, film‐forming polymers with xanthan gum directly. Nevertheless, taking inspiration from other application fields such as biotechnology, food and pharma, there are several encapsulation approaches in which xanthan gum in combination with other materials has proven beneficial.

Matrix encapsulation based on xanthan gum in combination with other components is applicable for a variety of compounds such as secondary metabolites (Da Rosa et al ., 2014 ; Ravichandran et al ., 2014 ), enzymes (Liu et al ., 2011 ) and microorganisms (Jiménez‐Pranteda et al ., 2012 ). Frequently, the basic principle is to add the AI to the xanthan gum hydrogel and subject the blend to drying by lyophilization or spray drying. ‘Co‐carriers’, for example other hydrocolloids like alginate or chitosan, inorganic fillers such as clay (Liu et al ., 2011 ) or carbohydrates such as maltodextrin (Ravichandran et al ., 2014 ) may be incorporated. By help of these additives, properties such as capsule structure, encapsulation efficiency and release patterns can be shaped. Matrix encapsulation was also achieved by dripping blends of xanthan gum and gellan gum into a recovery bath of CaCl 2 . At a ratio of 1:0.75 (xanthan: gellan gum), encapsulation of Lactobacilli resulted in an increased resistance of the probiotic microorganisms to simulated bile conditions (Jiménez‐Pranteda et al ., 2012 ).

Another possibility is the preparation of core‐shell capsules with solid or liquid core and one or several outer layers. This is possible by exploiting the electrostatic interaction between anionic xanthan gum and cationic chitosan. For example, Shu et al . ( 2018a , 2018b ) dispersed Bifidobacterium bifidum in xanthan gum hydrogel and extruded the blend into a chitosan solution to obtain capsules, which improved the survival of B. bifidum in milk. By alternating between xanthan gum solution and chitosan solution, the amount of coating layers can be modified. The beneficial effect of an additional layer was shown for Lactobacillus acidophilus in xanthan‐chitosan capsules, resulting in a better control of the release as well as improved viability during storage in a dairy beverage and exposure to simulated gastric juice (Shu et al ., 2018a , 2018b ).

Core‐shell capsules also can be produced using alginate as shell material and xanthan gum to adjust viscosity of the liquid core and thus stabilize encapsulated agents. This approach was pursued to encapsulate Lactococcus lactis and thus increase its viability and antimicrobial activity against food‐spoilage bacteria Listeria monocytogenes (Bekhit et al ., 2016 ).

One of the less investigated approaches is the direct cross‐linking of xanthan gum. This can be achieved by exposure to trivalent ions. For example, Pacheco‐Aguirre et al . ( 2016 ) demonstrated the encapsulation of the biocontrol agent Bacillus subtilis in xanthan gum by extrusion into a FeCl 3 bath. In this form, the biocontrol of the plant‐pathogenic nematode Meleidogyne incognita tended to be more efficient than when inoculating plants with non‐encapsulated biocontrol agent.

Even though limited data are available on encapsulation of AIs for agriculture, the examples illustrate the possibilities to use xanthan gum in encapsulated formulations, giving rise to potential new approaches.

Formulating with xanthan gum: practical tips and compatibilities

Xanthan gum hydrates both in hot and cold water. Working in an aqueous system, a proper incorporation of xanthan gum into the water phase is essential to achieve optimum performance. One of the main issues that may be observed is the formation of difficult to dissolve lumps. These lumps are caused by adding xanthan gum to the hydration medium all at once, too fast or by using improper techniques, impeding the complete hydration and thus its effective use. With the right approach, the formation of these lumps can be prevented.

The first requirement is a uniform dispersion of xanthan gum particles. Under fast agitation of the hydration medium, for example by a propeller stirrer, the bulk xanthan gum is ideally added to the upper part of the vortex where mixing velocity is highest. This is especially relevant for fine‐particle‐sized xanthan gum, which is difficult to disperse with low shear equipment. If the particles are not uniformly dispersed, they may stick together and the fast hydration of the outer surface can form a gel layer, preventing the entry of water. The resulting swollen lumps are also known as ‘fish eyes’, which can only be dissolved with high shear mixing equipment and/or prolonged mixing time (Sandford et al ., 1981 ). In many applications, this is not an option, so alternative approaches can be pursued:

• i. Preparation of a dry blend: Depending on additional ingredients present in the formulation, the preparation of a dry blend may be feasible. For this, the particle sizes of the individual components should be similar to avoid separation. Suitable components are for example sugars, salts, starches and clays (Sworn, 2009 ). In this approach, a fine particle size xanthan gum is typically used, and the focus is on ensuring a homogeneous distribution and spatial separation of the single xanthan gum particles, which facilitates hydration upon addition of water.
• ii. Slurry in non‐aqueous liquids: Similarly to a dry matrix, a liquid medium can serve for homogeneous distribution of xanthan gum particles. For this, it is important to choose non‐hydrating liquids. These could be (partly) water‐miscible liquids like glycerol, ethanol, propylenglycol, ethyl lactate or triethyl citrate as well as oils. For oils, a ratio of xanthan gum to liquid of 1:5 to 1:10 is recommended, whereas for water‐miscible liquids, the recommendation is 1:2 to 1:10. The slurry can be mixed with water under agitation for the hydration of xanthan gum.
• iii. Preparation of a stock paste: If additional components are not acceptable in the formulation, an aqueous stock solution of xanthan gum can be prepared. Stock pastes of up to 6% are feasible and can be preserved and stored long‐term until later dilution with water (Sworn, 2009 ). Obviously, this implies that high shear equipment has to be available during preparation of the stock solution.
• iv. Use of an easily dispersible xanthan gum grade: The most efficient way of ensuring fast hydration with low shear equipment and no need to modify components of the formulation is the use of a commercially available, ‘easily dispersible’ xanthan gum grade. These specifically processed grades are agglomerates with porous structure, which allows for a fast entry of water and prevention of fish‐eye formation.

Xanthan gum effectively thickens water‐based solutions even at low concentrations. To give a starting point, typical usage concentrations are between 0.2% and 1.0% in relation to the aqueous phase for the stabilization of suspensions, depending on particle characteristics. When aiming for sprayable solutions, a concentration around 0.08–0.10% is recommended, depending on nozzle type and operational parameters.

Particularly regarding the transfer of laboratory‐based research to application, it should be noted that viscosity build of xanthan gum differs in distilled water and when salts are present, such as in tap water.

In full formulations, possible interactions with xanthan gum and other components need to be considered. For example, typical anti‐freeze agents such as glycerol, ethylene glycol and propylene glycol are compatible with xanthan gum in concentrations up to 50%. Ethanol can be incorporated up to approximately 40% before precipitation of xanthan gum occurs. Xanthan gum is largely compatible with non‐ionic and anionic surfactants used in typical concentrations (approximately 15% active substance). However, due to its anionic nature, xanthan gum can interfere with cationic surfactants and amphoteric surfactants below their isoelectric point, where positive charge dominates.

The cellulose backbone of xanthan gum is well protected against enzymatic attack by its trisaccharide side chains and therefore shows better stability in presence of pectinases or amylases than other biopolymers. Nevertheless, for long‐term storage of xanthan gum solutions, a preservative system is usually required, which may be based, e.g. on isothiazolinones or less sensitizing or toxic alternatives such as benzoates and sorbates.

Considering these aspects is important to ensure successful use of xanthan gum.

In this review, we elaborated on the use of WSPs in different agricultural applications, focussing on eco‐friendly alternatives to synthetic materials. The process of biological synthesis by microbes, i.e. fermentation, delivers biodegradable polymers with narrow specifications and of high purity. Xanthan gum is one of the most prominent and commercially relevant examples for a microbial biopolymer. While xanthan gum is established in agriculture for formulation of suspension concentrates, there are still innovative applications to be explored. Among others, these comprise the use as spray adjuvant (drift control), co‐formulant in encapsulation and as soil improver, where classically synthetic WSPs are employed. Changes in regulatory frameworks, an increasing environmental awareness and a promising performance of xanthan gum underline the feasibility of this direction of research. Choosing the most suitable xanthan gum grade in terms of rheological behaviour and downstream modifications requires material‐specific knowledge and is crucial for successful application.

Funding Information

No funding information provided.

Conflict of interest

All authors are employees of Jungbunzlauer Ladenburg GmbH or were so in the past.

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The Food Additive Xanthan Gum Drives Adaptation of the Human Gut Microbiota

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The diets of industrialized countries reflect the increasing use of processed foods, often with the introduction of novel food additives. Xanthan gum is a complex polysaccharide with unique rheological properties that have established its use as a widespread stabilizer and thickening agent 1 . However, little is known about its direct interaction with the gut microbiota, which plays a central role in digestion of other, chemically-distinct dietary fiber polysaccharides. Here, we show that the ability to digest xanthan gum is surprisingly common in industrialized human gut microbiomes and appears to be contingent on the activity of a single bacterium that is a member of an uncultured bacterial genus in the family Ruminococcaceae . We used a combination of enrichment culture, multi-omics, and recombinant enzyme studies to identify and characterize a complete pathway in this uncultured bacterium for the degradation of xanthan gum. Our data reveal that this keystone degrader cleaves the xanthan gum backbone with a novel glycoside hydrolase family 5 (GH5) enzyme before processing the released oligosaccharides using additional enzymes. Surprisingly, some individuals harbor a Bacteroides species that is capable of consuming oligosaccharide products generated by the keystone Ruminococcaceae or a purified form of the GH5 enzyme. This Bacteroides symbiont is equipped with its own distinct enzymatic pathway to cross-feed on xanthan gum breakdown products, which still harbor the native linkage complexity in xanthan gum, but it cannot directly degrade the high molecular weight polymer. Thus, the introduction of a common food additive into the human diet in the past 50 years has promoted the establishment of a food chain involving at least two members of different phyla of gut bacteria.

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Everything You Need to Know about Xanthan Gum

Michelle Lee Photography / Getty Images

Xanthan gum is a common food additive used to improve the texture and consistency of products like ice cream, salad dressings, and gluten-free baked goods. It's also found in other commonly used products, such as medications and toothpaste.

Xanthan gum has been generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) since 1969 and hasn't been linked with any significant health concerns. However, consuming large amounts of xanthan gum may cause changes in gut bacteria. This effect has been linked to increased digestion symptoms in people with certain gut conditions, such as colitis (inflammation of the colon, or large intestine).

Xanthan gum is a type of polysaccharide , a carbohydrate made of long chains of simple sugars. It's made by fermenting Xanthomonas campestris bacteria with sugars such as glucose and sucrose. This process results in a gum-like substance that is then dried and turned into a fine, white powder.

Xanthan gum has powerful thickening properties and is also used as an emulsifier or a substance that helps mix compounds that usually separate, like oil and water. Additionally, it has stabilizing properties, which help preserve the taste and texture of certain food and beverage products.

Because xanthan gum has many functional benefits in food manufacturing, it is one of the most common additives in the U.S. food supply. It can be found in many store-bought salad dressings, sauces, fruit juices, desserts like pies and ice creams, and many other food and drink products.

Some people also use xanthan gum in home baking. For example, it's a popular ingredient in recipes for gluten-free baked goods, like breads and cakes, as it helps provide elasticity and structure without the need for gluten .

In addition to food and drinks, xanthan gum can be found in certain medications and personal care products like toothpaste and body lotion.

Potential Health Benefits

Xanthan gum is a soluble fiber , a type of carbohydrate the body cannot digest. Instead, xanthan gum absorbs water as it moves through the digestive tract, helping to slow digestion. It also acts as food for the bacteria that reside in the gut.

Your body can't digest xanthan gum, so it provides few calories and no nutrients as it passes through the system. It is usually used in such small amounts that it has little effect on health.

When used in larger quantities, xanthan gum may help regulate blood sugar levels. A few older, small studies have shown that when people consumed muffins and juice that contained xanthan gum, it helped prevent post-meal blood sugar spikes and reduce feelings of hunger. This is likely because xanthan gum helps slow the release of blood sugar into the bloodstream and creates bulk in the gut that supports the sensation of fullness . More research is needed.

Xanthan gum has also been shown to help treat people who experience swallowing difficulties . Some people develop swallowing difficulties after surgeries, accidents, and medical events like strokes and need to have their food and drinks thickened to prevent choking and aspiration (inhaling food or liquid into the lungs).

Because xanthan gum has thickening properties, it is sometimes used in commercial thickening products that help make food and drinks safer for people with difficulty swallowing.

Nutrition Facts of Xanthan Gum

Xanthan gum is mostly composed of carbohydrates and doesn't offer much nutritional value.

One tablespoon (tbsp) of xanthan gum contains:

• Calories: 30
• Fat: 0 grams (g)
• Carbohydrates: 7g
• Protein: .99g
• Sodium: 350 milligrams (mg)

While xanthan gum provides mostly carbohydrates, it is worth noting that it contains quite a bit of sodium per serving. One tbsp delivers 15% of the 2,300 mg daily sodium recommendation. This may increase sodium levels in some products containing xantham gum, and people who follow low-sodium diets may want to avoid using xanthan gum in large amounts.

Potential Risks

Xanthan gum has a strong safety record and has been GRAS by the FDA since 1969. A GRAS designation means that an ingredient has been shown to be safe for its intended use. Studies have shown that even when xanthan gum is consumed in very large doses of up to 214 mg per kilogram of body weight per day for 10 days, it's well tolerated and not associated with any significant adverse side effects.

However, consuming large amounts of xanthan gum could lead to digestive side effects, such as diarrhea and gas, in sensitive people. These side effects are usually only experienced when taking much larger doses of xanthan gum than commonly found in food and drink products.

Some research suggests that long-term xanthan gum intake may negatively affect overall gut health. For example, xanthan gum may increase the number of Ruminococcus gnavus bacteria in the large intestine. High levels of this bacteria are associated with increased severity of certain gastrointestinal conditions, including colitis (inflammation of the colon).

Other animal studies suggest that regular xanthan gum intake may promote gut inflammation and the growth of pathogenic (harmful) bacteria in the large intestine. Though more research is needed to confirm these potential negative side effects, people with digestive conditions like colitis may want to avoid products made with xanthan gum.

If you are concerned about food additives like xanthan gum, you can reduce your intake by checking ingredient labels and avoiding foods that contain this common ingredient.

Tips for Consuming Xanthan Gum

In addition to being found in commercially prepared foods and drinks, home cooks can use xanthan gum to thicken sauces, make gluten-free baked goods, and improve the texture of other common recipes. You can usually find xanthan gum in the baking section of the grocery store.

Here are a few ways to use xanthan gum in your kitchen:

• Use it to thicken gravies and sauces
• Try it in gluten-free recipes like breads, muffins, cookies, and cakes
• Add a small amount to soups and stews for a thicker consistency
• Use it in frozen cocktails to improve their texture

When using xanthan gum in gluten-free baking, check your gluten-free flour to ensure it doesn't already contain it. Many one-to-one gluten-free flour replacements contain xanthan gum.

Most baking websites recommend using 0.25-0.5 teaspoons of xanthan gum per cup of gluten-free flour, such as almond flour, when making baked goods. However, following specific recipe instructions is always best to ensure the desired outcome.

A Quick Review

Xanthan gum is a common food additive used to improve the texture and consistency of products like salad dressings and ice cream.

While xanthan gum doesn't provide many health benefits, it has a strong safety record. Most people can consume it without side-effects. However, people who have certain gastrointestinal conditions may want to avoid products with xanthan gum, as some research suggests the additive can increase the severity of symptoms.

If you're interested in experimenting with xanthan gum in your kitchen, it can be used as a substitute for other thickening agents, like cornstarch. Try using it to thicken soups, gravies, and dressings, and adding it to homemade gluten-free baked goods.

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Development of microfibrillated cellulose filaments using xanthan and guar gums

• Original Research
• Published: 27 August 2024

Cite this article

• Poliana Dariva Menini   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0005-8723-1462 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ,
• Michel Picanço Oliveira   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9241-0194 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ,
• Jair Rogério Colares   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4066-6611 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ,
• Lucas Braga Mulin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4816-5683 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ,
• Demetrius Profeti   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4565-3331 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ,
• Luciene Paula Roberto Profeti   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6280-2410 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ,
• Danillo Wisky Silva   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4330-6934 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 &
• Jordão Cabral Moulin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5543-3853 1 , 2 , 3 , 4  

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The production of yarns and synthetic fibers is of great importance for numerous industrial sectors, such as the textile, composite material, biomedical, and civil construction industries. The utilization of cellulose microfibrils (CNFs) for filament production still requires further research, given the challenges associated with the coagulation process. Extensive research efforts have been dedicated to the development of materials that can be combined with CNFs to improve coagulation. This study aimed to develop an acetone spinning method to produce filaments from CNFs combined with xanthan (XG) and guar (GG) gums. Three types of filament architecture were tested: monocomponent (MONO), bicomponent (BI), and mixed component (MIX). XG filaments were evaluated at three coagulation times (90, 120, and 150 s) and GG filaments at a single coagulation time (120 s). Morphological analysis showed that gums contributed to improving external structure. BI filaments were rounder, exhibited lower stress concentration, and showed the highest mechanical resistance after 120 s of coagulation (XG = 27.97 MPa, GG = 28.69 MPa). Water absorption tests showed that the developed filaments hold great potential as absorbent materials, representing an environmentally friendly alternative to synthetic polymer absorbents.

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Poliana Dariva Menini, Michel Picanço Oliveira, Jair Rogério Colares, Lucas Braga Mulin, Demetrius Profeti, Luciene Paula Roberto Profeti, Danillo Wisky Silva & Jordão Cabral Moulin

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All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Conceptualization, investigation, writing, and review & editing were performed by P.D.M., M.P.O., and L.B.M. Methodology, data curation, and writing were performed by P.D.M., D.P., J.R.C. Validation was performed by J.C.M., D.P., and L.P.R.P.

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Menini, P.D., Oliveira, M.P., Colares, J.R. et al. Development of microfibrillated cellulose filaments using xanthan and guar gums. Cellulose (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-024-06134-x

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