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Technical and vocational education and training in the Philippines: In retrospect and its future directions

• Divina Edralin San Beda University
• Ronald Pastrana San Beda University

The Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) is the government agency tasked to manage and supervise technical education and skills development in the Philippines. In retrospect, we answered the research question: “What is the status of TVET in the Philippines as managed and supervised by TESDA and its future directions towards SDG#4? We described the evolution, goals, objectives, accomplishments, and challenges of TVET in the Philippines. We used the Philippine Qualifications Framework as the underpinning model which establishes a standard for education and training providers. We adopted the descriptive research design and the qualitative archival research approach. Findings revealed that TVET in the Philippines began when it was introduced in the Philippine education system in 1927. There were considerable accomplishments and outcomes of TVET in the Philippines in the past years such as setting the direction of TVET in the Philippines and promulgating relevant standards. These strategic efforts contributed to the employment of TVET graduates, improving the quality of their skills needed by the industry, and having a clearer policy direction on how TVET is implemented in the country. Problems and challenges encountered in the supervision and implementation are related to the poor quality of graduates, low employment of graduates, as well as weak structural and policy implementation as shown by the lack of closer coordination among the TVET stakeholders. We recommended aligning the curriculum development of TVET with the present Philippine Development Plan 2022-2028 and the needs of the industry including the demands of Industry 4.0 to strengthen TVET in the Philippines and align its future direction with SDG#4.

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Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) for young people in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis

• Janice S Tripney 1 &
• Jorge G Hombrados 2  

Empirical Research in Vocational Education and Training volume  5 , Article number:  3 ( 2013 ) Cite this article

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The world is facing a worsening youth employment crisis. In response, technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is back on the development agenda after years of neglect. This systematic review examined the evidence from studies evaluating the impacts of TVET interventions for young people in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). The 26 included studies evaluated 20 different interventions, predominantly from Latin America. Meta-analyses of the effectiveness of TVET on five outcome measure categories were conducted. The overall mean effects on overall paid employment, formal employment, and monthly earnings were small, positive, and significant; however, significant heterogeneity was observed. Moderator analysis was performed in an attempt to explain between-study differences in effects. The overall paucity of research in this area, together with specific gaps and methodological limitations, affirm the need for strengthening the evidence base. Implications for policy, practice and research are discussed.

Introduction

The global youth unemployment rate rose sharply between 2008 and 2009, from 11.8 to 12.7 per cent, reversing the pre-crisis trend of declining youth unemployment rates since 2002 (International Labour Organization 2011 ). By 2011, 74.8 million young people were unemployed. In some regions, young people are nearly three times as likely as adults to be unemployed; they are also more likely than older workers to be underemployed or work in the informal labour market, in poor quality jobs that require low levels of skills and offer limited socio-economic security, training opportunities, and working conditions (International Labour Organization 2012 ). Significant regional variation in youth unemployment exists; and, in many countries, young women are much more likely to be un/underemployed than young men (United Nations 2012 ). Over 40 per cent of all young people live on less than two US dollars a day, with youth in developing countries disproportionately among the working poor (International Labour Organization 2012 ). This enormous unlocked potential represents a substantial loss of opportunity for both individuals and society.

One billion young people, the majority from LMICs, are predicted to reach employment age within the next decade (International Labour Organization 2012 ), compounding what are already severely limited opportunities for integrating youth into the labour market. With increasing policy importance now placed on higher-order skills and their central role in the global knowledge-based economy, comes a renewed focus on the potential of TVET to equip youths with the abilities to seize available work opportunities, and, in turn, impact upon global poverty and social stability (African Union 2007 ; King and Palmer 2010 ; Péano et al. 2008 ; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Scientific and Cultural Organization 2010 , 2012 ). Neglected by the World Bank and other donor agencies during much of the 1980s and 1990s, there has been growing investment in TVET since 2000. Deciding which programmes to implement requires an understanding not only of which models are effective, but for whom they are effective. Collecting evidence from studies that have analysed these issues is crucial for purposes of policy-making.

Technical and vocational education and training (TVET)

The term TVET, as used in this systematic review, follows the definition used by UNESCO as “those aspects of the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupation in various sectors of economic life”. It incorporates: technical education, vocational education, vocational training, on-the-job training, and apprenticeship training (or any combination thereof).

Prior reviews of TVET

Although a number of prior reviews have summarised the existing research in this area (see, for example, Angel-Urdinola et al. 2010 ; Betcherman et al. 2004 ; Betcherman et al. 2007 ; Card et al. 2010 ; Fares and Puerto 2009 ; Greenberg et al. 2003 ; Katz 2008 ; Kluve 2006 ; Kluve and Schmidt 2002 ; Puerto 2007 ; Stavreska 2006 ; Van Adams 2007 ), there are a number of limitations to these reviews. Some contain evidence from high-income countries only; others, whilst broader in geographical scope, do not focus specifically on developing countries, TVET, or young people. Very few existing reviews are based on a comprehensive, systematic search for literature, and almost all take either a traditional narrative approach to synthesis or use vote-counting methods where conclusions regarding effective interventions are made based on the number of studies found to demonstrate significant positive results. None of the previous reviews that specifically focus on TVET for youth in LMICs have computed effect sizes for the included studies or examined variability in effects by study, participant or intervention characteristics. These are problems that this review aims to remedy, thereby adding value to the existing body of research on this topic.

Purpose of the present study

This review sought to improve upon prior work by systematically examining the evidence base to provide a clearer picture of the types of TVET interventions being used to improve employment prospects for youth in LMICs, to identify the overall effectiveness of TVET, to examine whether study, participant and intervention characteristics help to explain variability in intervention effects, and to identify areas in which more research needs to be conducted. An extended version of this article is available as a technical report published in the Campbell Collaboration library (Tripney et al. 2013 ).

Systematic review methodology was utilised for all aspects of the search, selection and coding of studies. The review was conducted in accordance with Campbell Collaboration procedures and guidelines on systematic review methods, available at http://campbellcollaboration.org/ . Full details about the methods for this review can be found in the technical report, and review protocol (Tripney et al. 2012 ).

Eligibility criteria

Eligibility was restricted to studies that: were conducted in LMICs; were reported between 2000 and 2011; evaluated the impact of a TVET intervention; investigated outcomes for youth aged 15–24 years; included at least one quantifiable measure of employment or employability (broadly defined); and used an experimental or rigorous quasi-experimental design (such as the use of propensity scores to match on pre-tests and/or relevant demographic characteristics or regression analysis to control for differences between groups). Single group pre-post test studies were not eligible. No language or publication status restrictions were applied.

The conceptual definition of TVET used in this review cuts across education level, type of learning arrangement, mode of delivery, setting, and type of provider/regulator. It includes provision of (i) initial training for young people from the age of 15/16 years after compulsory school, but prior to entering work; (ii) continuing education and training for adults in the labour market leading to personal, flexible and/or vocational competencies; and (iii) training for unemployed persons currently available for and seeking work (including retraining for those made redundant). Single- and multi-service TVET interventions were eligible for inclusion in the review, as were interventions delivered for any length of time or frequency. LMICs were defined according to World Bank classification of economies (in effect 1 July 2011 until 30 June 2012).

Literature search and strategy

The review recognised the importance of using a comprehensive and diverse search strategy to locate all qualifying published and unpublished studies (Papaioannou et al. 2009 ; Schucan Bird and Tripney 2011 ). First, 10 major bibliographic databases were electronically searched (including ASSIA, Econlit, ERIC, IBSS, Medline, PsycINFO, and SSCI). Searches within each database combined controlled vocabulary and natural language terms, with appropriate wildcards, for three concepts: TVET, employment, and study design. Second, specialist databases and library catalogues were searched, including grey literature, regional and topic-specific sources. Third, the websites of government agencies, research centres, foundations, professional associations, and other relevant organisations were searched. Fourth, the reference lists of previous reviews and included studies were checked. Fifth, citation searches of included studies were conducted. Sixth, information about additional relevant studies was requested from authors of included studies and other key experts in the field.

Data extraction and critical appraisal

Data were independently extracted from all included studies by pairs of reviewers using a coding tool specifically designed for this review. Studies were quality assessed using a tool developed specifically for assessing risk of bias in experimental and quasi-experimental designs based on statistical methods (Hombrados and Waddington 2012 ).

Where data allowed, effect sizes were computed for each study and random-effects inverse-variance weighted meta-analytic methods were used to synthesise the evidence. We followed Petrosino et al. ( 2012 ) in the use of standardised mean differences (SMDs) for synthesising both continuous and dichotomous outcomes. The different formulas used in calculating effect sizes are detailed in the full technical report. The included studies were analysed by outcome and Hedges’ g effect sizes were reported. To visibly examine between-study variability in the effect size estimates, forest plots were used to display the estimated effect sizes from each study along with their 95 per cent confidence intervals (CIs). Heterogeneity was explored using both the Q test and the I 2 index (Deeks et al. 2001 ; Higgins and Green 2011 ). Moderator analyses were performed to examine possible reasons for variability in effects. Due to the small number of available studies, an analogue to the ANOVA analysis (univariate) approach was used (Lipsey and Wilson 2001 ). The categorical variables which identified the sub-groups used in this exercise were specified in advance.

Size of literature reviewed

Of the 8072 articles identified using the electronic search, 145 were deemed potentially relevant on the basis of title and abstract and the full papers were retrieved for a full text review. The full papers of a further 76 items identified through the non-database search were also manually examined. This process resulted in a total of 30 different studies, described in 55 separate publications, being identified as meeting the eligibility criteria. Of these, 26 studies were included in the review. a The study search and selection process is detailed in Figure  1 .

Study search and selection process flowchart.

Descriptive analysis

Publication dates of the 26 included studies ranged between 2001 and 2011, and over three-quarters were published as technical reports. Three studies were randomised experiments and 23 studies used a quasi-experimental design (QED). The QED evaluations used different econometric techniques to address selection bias and net out the impacts of other factors, most commonly propensity score matching (Rosenbaum and Rubin 1983 ). The majority of study samples included both male and female participants, and a single study focused exclusively on young women. The risk of bias assessments resulted in five studies graded medium quality (Attanasio et al. 2011 ; Card et al. 2011 ; Chong and Galdo 2006 ; Hicks et al. 2011 ; Espinoza 2010 ), 10 graded low/medium (Acero et al. 2011 ; Aedo and Nuñez 2004 ; Aedo and Pizarro 2004 ; Analítica Consultores 2006 ; Chong et al. 2008 ; Díaz and Jaramillo 2006 ; Elías et al. 2004 ; Ibarraran and Rosas-Shady 2006 ; Jaramillo et al. 2007 ; Ñopo et al. 2007 ) and 11 graded low (Alzuá and Brassiolo 2006 ; Alzúa et al. 2007 ; Benus et al. 2001 ; Bidani et al. 2002 ; Chun and Watanabe 2011 ; Delajara et al. 2006 ; Dmitrijeva 2009 ; López-Acevedo 2003 ; Medina and Nuñez 2005 ; Mensch et al. 2004 ; van Gameren 2010 ). d

Twenty different TVET programme interventions were evaluated. Settings include 10 upper-middle income countries (Argentina; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Brazil; Chile; China; Colombia; Dominican Republic; Latvia; Mexico; Panama and Peru); two lower-middle income countries (India and Bhutan); and one low-income country (Kenya). e Twelve programmes were specifically targeted at youth. The majority were targeted at disadvantaged populations, based on criteria such as household income, education level, and employment experience. A few were occupation- rather than age-focused (targeting, for example, demobilised soldiers or unemployed former employees of state-owned enterprises). A small number of interventions were directed exclusively at either urban or rural residents.

The 20 TVET interventions consisted of one or more of the different models or approaches to vocational skills development (see Table  1 ). The different types of TVET are not evenly represented, however; for instance, no apprenticeship training programmes were evaluated and a very small number of studies focused on technical education or vocational education. Many of the interventions in the included studies were complex, multi-component programmes. Alongside TVET-related training, some programmes incorporated labour mediation services (such as job readiness skills), some included training specifically for self-employment and some included other types of training (such as basic skills). However, the largest category of multi-component programme involved components consisting of different types of TVET. There were nine two-phase TVET interventions, most of which combined theoretical and practical training, usually in the format of classroom-based vocational training followed by a period of on-the-job training to provide beneficiaries with work experience. These interventions typically focused on short-term semi-skilled training in specific occupations demanded in the private sector.

Primary study authors often did not provide all the necessary data for computing effect sizes. It was possible to calculate at least one effect size for 10 of the studies included in the review (Acero et al. 2011 ; Aedo and Nuñez 2004 ; Aedo and Pizarro 2004 ; Attanasio et al. 2011 ; Card et al. 2011 ; Elías et al. 2004 ; Espinoza 2010 ; Hicks et al. 2011 ; Ibarraran and Rosas-Shady 2006 ; Medina and Nuñez 2005 ). The findings from these studies were statistically combined using meta-analytic techniques.

Overall mean effects of interventions

The overall mean effect sizes for five outcomes are presented in Table  2 . For three outcomes, an overall positive and statistically significant effect on TVET on youth was found: overall paid employment ( g  = 0.134; 95% CI [0.024, 0.243]); formal employment ( g  = 0.199; 95% CI [0.055, 0.344]); and earnings ( g  = 0.127; 95% CI [0.043, 0.21]). For working hours worked, the overall effect was also positive, but non-significant ( g  = 0.043; 95% CI [-0.017, 0.104]). In contrast, the overall effect on self-employment earnings was negative, and non-significant ( g  = -0.025; 95% CI [-0.11, 0.061]). b

Analysis of homogeneity

For three outcomes (overall paid employment, formal employment, and earnings) the grand mean provides some evidence that the TVET interventions were, on average, effective; although, effects are generally small and difficult to detect. Furthermore, in each case the result of the statistical test for homogeneity was statistically significant (Q = 23.8, p < 0.05; Q = 11.1, p < 0.05; Q = 25.5, p < 0.05), indicating that studies disagreed on the magnitude of effect. Our next step was to explore the reasons for this variability between studies.

Analysis of moderator effects

Moderator analyses were performed to examine independent variables that may be contributing to the heterogeneity. The results are presented in Table  3 .

Relationship of study characteristics to effect size

Two factors potentially associated with treatment effect were examined: study quality and length of follow up (i.e., timing of outcome measurement). As there were no high quality studies included in the review, studies rated medium quality were compared with those rated low or low-medium. c Short-term treatment effects (measured at approximately six months) were compared with medium-term effects (measured at approximately 12 months). The low quality studies were found to have consistently larger mean effects than the medium quality studies; and, for two outcomes, differences in mean effects observed between studies according to study quality were statistically significant: paid employment (Q b  = 6.49, p = 0.0108); formal employment (Q b  = 10.6, p = 0.0012). Although studies that measured short-term treatment effects consistently had slightly larger mean effects than studies in the medium-term follow up group, no statistically significant relationship between length of follow up and treatment effect was observed for any of the outcomes for which we had data.

Relationship of participant characteristics (gender) to effect size

For one of the five outcome categories (weekly hours), statistically significant differences in mean treatment effects were observed between studies according to gender (Qb = 10.1; p = 0.00151). Treatment effects for female youth were positive ( g  = 0.16; 95% CI [0.04, 0.28]), while those for male youth were negative ( g  = -0.09; 95% CI [-0.2, 0.01]). However, male youth participation in TVET demonstrated effects that were not statistically different from zero, lessening our confidence in this result.

Relationship of intervention characteristics (type) to effect size

Slight differences in mean effects between two-phase models of TVET and other models were observed, with two-phases usually, but not always, producing the larger effects. However, these differences were not statistically significant.

Conclusions

This review improves upon prior work by statistically synthesising TVET intervention research, strengthening the evidence base on which current policies and practices can draw. However, the nature of the available evidence, and limitations in the review itself, are such that drawing strong inferences from the results of the analyses is not recommended and considerable caution should be used when interpreting and applying the findings of the review.

Despite renewed investment in TVET and increased pressure for evidence-based decision-making, there remains an overall scarcity of research in this area and specific knowledge gaps. The interventions included in this systematic review are not representative of all TVET programmes in existence. Studies were undertaken in a relatively small number of counties, predominantly in Latin America and the Caribbean. Some types of TVET are poorly represented in the review; for example, no studies examined the effectiveness of apprenticeship training. The quality of the existing evidence base is also a concern. Only three RCTs were identified, and methodological and reporting shortcomings of the included studies were such that none provided high quality evidence to help answer the review questions.

Overall, interventions included in the meta-analyses were found to demonstrate a significant, though small, positive effect on a limited range of labour market outcomes: overall paid employment ( g  = 0.134; 95% CI [0.024, 0.243]); formal employment ( g  = 0.199; 95% CI [0.055, 0.344]); and monthly earnings ( g  = 0.127; 95% CI [0.043, 0.21]). However, the observed heterogeneity was also significant, indicating that different studies point to somewhat different conclusions. Attempts to explain the heterogeneity in overall mean effects suggest that methods matter. The low quality studies have consistently larger mean effects than the medium quality studies. For two outcomes, evidence of a statistically significant relationship between study quality and effect size magnitude suggest that the overall mean effect may be inflated and that our conclusions about treatment effect should be based only on those studies rated medium quality: paid employment ( g  = 0.06; 95% CI [-0.01, 0.12]); formal employment ( g  = 0.12; 95% CI [0.05, 0.19]). Treatment effects for both self-employment earnings and weekly hours worked were non-significant. On the whole, the other independent variables that were tested were unable to explain variability in effects. Length of follow up did not demonstrate a significant relationship with treatment effect. Two-phase TVET interventions (classroom-based vocational training followed by on-the-job training) produced statistically similar effects to other TVET models. Gender may have some influence, as an increase in the number of weekly hours worked by youth following participating in TVET appears to be driven by the effect on young women. It is important to note, however, that due to an insufficient number of studies reporting relevant data, only some of the moderator analyses that had been planned a priori could be performed. Furthermore, due to the very small number of studies for most of the variables tested, and thus low statistical power, we may not have been able to detect moderator effects that may indeed be present. In addition, there may be other moderating variables that either were not tested in this study or measured in the primary reports, such as implementation fidelity, whether the intervention was theoretically informed, and so on, which could account for the differences in effects between studies.

While a key strength of this study is its application of systematic review principles to improve upon prior work. There are several important limitations to this review that should be acknowledged. First, not all eligible studies are included in the meta-analysis. Second, the methods for calculating comparable effect sizes from studies using complex econometrics methods, as used in this review, are under-developed and require further research (for a complete discussion, see Becker and Wu 2007 ; Duvendack et al. 2012 ; Lipsey and Wilson 2001 ). Third, no high quality studies were identified and some of the methodological concerns associated with those that were included may mean that the studies have yielded biased estimates of treatment effect. All conclusions from the current review are therefore sensitive to the possibility that the results from the meta-analyses may be over- or under-estimating the effects of TVET on the outcome variables of interest.

Limitations notwithstanding, this systematic review provides some evidence to support the claim that participation in TVET improves the labour market situation of youth in LMICs, on average, when compared to youth who do not participate, with the strength of the evidence strongest for formal employment and monthly earnings. Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that it is worthwhile to continue investment in TVET provision. Although, statistically, the effects of TVET on youth may be small, even a slight increase in the employment rate, for example, could potentially translate into fairly large numbers of young people entering the labour market, especially where programmes are delivered nationally. Through its use of statistical meta-analysis, this review has improved upon previous work; nevertheless, there are two main related areas of likely disappointment for policymakers and programme implementers. First, not only were the observed effects generally small and difficult to detect, the review does not provide conclusive evidence of the effectiveness of TVET on youth employment outcomes. This suggests an urgent need to improve the rigour of the evidence base, and will require policymakers, practitioners and other relevant stakeholders engaging critically with the barriers to effective research production and dissemination in this area. The commissioning of RCTs and robust QEDs is crucial for generating evidence capable of supporting causal claims. To improve potential generalisability, it is also important that appropriate support, financial and otherwise, is given to rigorous outcome research on all types of TVET that have been implemented internationally for young people, and in a broader range of geographical settings than covered by the current evidence base. A cost-benefit analysis was outside the scope of the current review; however, attention should be given to the collection of data regarding the costs of TVET interventions, and examinations of cost-effectiveness should be a priority in future impact evaluations and systematic reviews. Second, the available evidence does not allow recommendations to be made for, or against, investments in a particular model of TVET. Although claims have been made in the literature and media for the success or effectiveness of a particular format of TVET widely implemented in Latin America and the Caribbean, the evidence from this systematic review suggests that such claims are premature. In the absence of evidence in support of any one model or approach to vocational skills development, it seems reasonable in the meantime for policymakers and other stakeholders to select the least costly, most culturally acceptable, and/or most easily implemented programmes, while at the same time becoming good consumers of evidence and working towards the strengthening of the evidence base on TVET. This review has demonstrated that not only is there is a clear need for additional primary research in this area, but that more of the same will not suffice. The methodological shortcomings of the current evidence base, and specific knowledge gaps, suggest a number of future research priorities. These are summarised in Table  4 .

a Four eligible Spanish-language studies could not be included in the review. Of these, one study was judged as meeting the review selection criteria on the basis of detailed descriptions in previous literature reviews, but efforts to obtain a copy of the publication were unsuccessful. The three remaining eligible non-English language studies were not included in the review due to exhaustion of financial resources. All four studies evaluated ProJoven, a Peruvian programme that was evaluated by a number of studies that were included in the review.

b A preliminary assessment of the ‘direction of effects’ of the 16 studies not included in the meta-analyses suggests that these studies generally support the meta-analytic findings.

c For this exercise, all of these studies were grouped together into a single category labelled low.

d One study (Espinoza 2010 ) was graded medium quality overall; however, individual assessments for the different outcome categories varied. For employment outcomes, this study was graded as proving medium quality evidence; for monthly earnings, the grading was low/medium.

e World Bank country classifications have been revised twice since the conduct of this review, and Chile and Latvia are currently ranked as high income economies.

Authors’ information

JT is a lecturer in Social Policy, based at the EPPI-Centre (Evidence for Policy and Practice Co-ordinating Centre), Social science Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of London. JH is a research analyst at J-PAL (Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab), based at its regional office in Latin America at the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile.

Abbreviations

Low- and middle-income country

Quasi-experimental design

Randomised controlled trial

Standardised mean difference

Technical and vocational education and training.

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Acknowledgements

This manuscript arose from a systematic review commissioned in 2011 by the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID), in response to the International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie) systematic reviews call 3. JT was the grant holder and principal investigator. JH participated in the full review on an un-funded basis. JT and JH wish to acknowledge the contributions of those who helped in the creation of the full review: Mark Newman was involved in data collection and advised on the statistical analysis; Kimberley Hovish, Chris Brown, Katarzyna Steinka-Fry and Eric Wilkey participated in the acquisition of data. Special thanks are due to Sandra Jo Wilson, editor of the Education Coordination Group (ECG), for her guidance throughout the initial project. The funding agency informed the scope and development of the full review. The preparation of this manuscript was unfunded, and the funding agency had no role in the writing of this manuscript, or the decision to submit the manuscript for publication. The opinions expressed in this manuscript are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the funding agency. The full version of the review is published in the Campbell library ( http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/lib/project/227/ ), and the 3ie database of systematic reviews ( http://www.3ieimpact.org/en/evidence/systematic-reviews/details/152/ ).

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JT conceived and designed the study; collected, analysed and interpreted the data; and drafted the manuscript. JH participated in the coordination of the study and data acquisition; advised on the statistical analysis and interpretation of data; and revised the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Tripney, J.S., Hombrados, J.G. Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) for young people in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Empirical Res Voc Ed Train 5 , 3 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/1877-6345-5-3

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Rethinking Vocational Education in the Philippines: Does It Really Lead to Higher Wages?

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Vocational education is often seen as a means of enhancing the earning potential of disadvantaged workers - those with lower levels of general formal education, or without adequate skills to integrate into the labour market. International evidence on the effects of vocational education on earnings is mixed. An earlier study on the Philippines indicated that this type of education can increase the wages of low-educated workers. However, by using a more recent household survey and employing alternative statistical techniques, this paper finds contrasting evidence. The new estimates indicate that workers who obtained vocational education do not earn significantly more than those who did not. The differences in estimates imply that the wage effects of vocational education among Filipino workers remain unclear. Therefore, caution must be exercised while making policies that aim to promote vocational education as an alternative to general formal education.

Keywords: Vocational education, wage effects, Philippines.

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1. Introduction

Many economists believe that the accumulation of human capital - in the form of education - increases wages because workers acquire skills and knowledge while in school, which increase their productivity (Schultz 1961; Becker 1962; Mincer 1974). Many empirical studies have pointed out the superiority of education over other determinants of earning differentials (e.g., Psacharopoulos 1972, 1985, 1994; Psacharopoulos and Patrinos 2004; Peet, Fink and Fawzi 2015). Education also serves as a signal of workers' innate abilities as well as other unobservable productivity-related characteristics (Phelps 1972; Arrow 1973; Spence 1973). While these studies typically refer to general formal education, there is mixed evidence regarding the role of vocational education in enhancing the earning prospects of workers.

In most countries, vocational education forms an integral part of the education system as a supplier of job-specific skills. It aims to link workers to available jobs by providing them the skills that employers seek but are unable to find. Vocational education is also viewed as a means of improving the earning prospects of workers with low levels of general formal education. By providing them the specific skills that are needed in the labour market, either as self-employed or wage workers, vocational education serves as a social intervention to facilitate the labour market inclusion of vulnerable workers (Psacharopoulos 1997). In recent years, governments...

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Education System Profiles

Education in the philippines.

Wilson Macha, Chris Mackie, and Jessica Magaziner, Knowledge Analysts at WES

The Philippines is a unique country. Only slightly larger than the U.S. state of Arizona in land mass, it is the world’s second-largest archipelago after Indonesia, consisting of more than 7,000 islands. It is also the world’s 12th most-populous country with just over 103 million people as of 2016 .

Notably, the Philippines is the only pre-dominantly Christian country in Asia (roughly 80 percent of the population is Roman Catholic). Equally notable, English is a national language in the Philippines next to Filipino (Tagalog) and spoken by about two-thirds of the population, although there are still some 170 additional Malayo-Polynesian languages in use throughout the archipelago.

Both the country’s religious makeup and its anglophony are the result of colonialism. The Philippines was a Spanish colony for more than three centuries, a fact that shaped religious belief systems, before the U.S. occupied it in 1898 and ruled the country for nearly five decades, until independence in 1946. U.S. colonialism had a formative impact on the development of the modern Philippine education system and various other aspects of Philippine society. With the imposition of English in sectors like education, news media, and trade, the Spanish language became marginalized and faded. In 1987, Spanish was dropped as an official language and is today only spoken by a small minority of Filipinos.

Deteriorating Human Rights Situation

In 2013, the Philippine government initiated the extension of the country’s basic education cycle from ten to twelve years – a major reform that former Education Secretary Armin Luistro has called “the most comprehensive basic education reform initiative ever done in the country since the establishment of the public education system more than a century ago ”. Over the past two years, however, news from the Philippines was mostly dominated by extralegal killings, after populist President Rodrigo Duterte, elected in 2016, unleashed a brutal “war on drugs” that Human Rights Watch has described as the “ worst human rights crisis since the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos”. In a quest to eradicate the sale and use of drugs, more than 12,000 people, including many innocent victims, have been gunned down by the country’s police, armed forces and vigilantes without any form of legal process. Most of the victims are poor and from the country’s congested cities.

Other recent developments included an intensification of the armed conflict in the southern region of the country, in which separatist rebels and Islamist terror groups like Abu Sayyaf are fighting for greater autonomy or the creation of an independent state for the Muslim Moro minority (officially 5 percent of the population, primarily located on the island of Mindanao). Heavy military fighting in 2017 triggered the imposition of martial law in the Mindanao region, with President Duterte publicly contemplating the extension of martial law to other parts of the country  – an announcement that raised the specter of a further erosion of civil liberties in the Philippines.

Duterte’s “war on drugs” and his authoritarian ambitions are not without detractors – the Catholic Church of the Philippines, for instance, has condemned the extrajudicial killings. As of now, however, Duterte’s hard-line policies are supported by a majority of the Filipino population. The President held a sky-high approval rating of 80 percent in opinion polls conducted in December 2017 – a far higher rating than any of the three preceding presidents .

Economic Outlook and Poverty

The deteriorating human rights situation in the Philippines has so far done little to slow economic growth. The Philippine economy is booming and has, in fact, grown faster than all other Asian economies except China and Vietnam in recent years. In 2017, the country’s GDP increased by 6.7 percent and is projected to continue to grow by more than 6 percent annually in 2018 and 2019 .

By some measures, economic growth in the Philippines is socially inclusive : according to official statistics , the country’s poverty rate decreased from 26.6 percent in 2006 to 21.6 percent in 2015. The World Bank noted that between “…. 2012 and 2015, household income among the bottom 40 percent of the income distribution rose by an average annual rate of 7.6 percent”. At the same time, poverty remains a major and pervasive problem in the Philippines, with efforts to reduce the problem progressing slowly and lagging behind improvements made in other Southeast Asian countries. Income disparities are rampant and economic growth is mostly concentrated in urban centers, while many rural regions remain plagued by extreme levels of poverty. According to  the Asian Development Bank , close to 25 million Filipinos still existed on less than USD $1.51 per day in 2010.

Problems in Education and Education Reforms: An Overview

In 2017, the National Economic and Development Authority of the Philippines published the Philippine Development Plan, 2017-2022 , detailing the country’s aspirations for the next five years. The plan envisions the Philippines becoming an upper-middle income country by 2022, based on more inclusive economic growth that will reduce inequalities and poverty, particularly in rural areas. Human capital development is a key element in this strategy and has been the impetus behind various political reforms over the past years.  Recent education reforms have sought to boost enrollment levels, graduation rates and mean years of schooling in elementary and secondary education, and to improve the quality of higher education.

Problems in the School Sector

Many of these reforms were adopted against a backdrop of declining educational standards in the Philippine education system during the first decade of the 21st century . A UNESCO mid-decade assessment report of Southeast Asian education systems, published in 2008, for example, found that participation and achievement rates in basic education in the Philippines had fallen dramatically, owed to chronic underfunding. After rising strongly from 85.1 percent in 1991 to 96.8 percent in 2000, net enrollment rates at the elementary level, for instance, had dropped back down to 84.4 percent by 2005. Also by mid-decade, elementary school dropout rates had regressed back to levels last seen in the late 1990s. The completion rate in elementary school was estimated to be below 70 percent in 2005.

At the secondary level, problems were omnipresent as well: the net enrollment rate in secondary education, for example, had by 2005 dropped down to 58.5 percent, after increasing from 55.4 percent to around 66 percent between 1991 and 2000. Tellingly perhaps, the country’s youth literacy rate , while still being high by regional standards, fell from 96.6 percent in 1990 to 95.1 percent in 2003, making the Philippines the only country in South-East Asia with declining youth literacy rates.

Such deficiencies were reflected in the poor performance of Filipino students in international assessment tests, such as the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) . In 2003, the last year the Philippines participated in the study, the country ranked only 34th out of 38 countries in high school mathematics and 43rd out of 46 countries in high school science. Education spending as a percentage of overall government expenditures, meanwhile, declined from 18.2 percent in 1998 to 12.4 percent in 2005 . Between 2003 and 2005 alone, average annual spending  per public elementary and secondary school student fell from PHP 9,500 (USD $182.7) to PHP 8,700 (USD $167.3) in real terms.

Policy Response

To address these shortcomings, the Philippine government initiated structural changes in the basic education system and significantly boosted education expenditures. Crucially, the “ Kindergarten Education Act ”, passed in 2011, enacted a mandatory pre-elementary year of Kindergarten education, while the “ 2013 Basic Education Act ”, extended the elementary and secondary education cycle from 10 to 12 years. The importance of this new 12-year education cycle (K-12), which adds two years of mandatory senior secondary schooling for every Filipino student, cannot be understated. Until the reforms, the Philippines was one of only three countries in the world (the other two being Angola and Djibouti), with a 10-year basic education cycle. As such, the K-12 reforms are an essential step to improve the global competitiveness of the Philippines and bring the country up to international standards. Implementation of the new system is progressing on schedule and the first student cohort will graduate from the new 12-year system in 2018.

In addition, education spending was increased greatly: between 2005, when it hit its nadir, and 2014, government spending on basic education, for instance, more than doubled. Spending per student in the basic education system reached PHP 12,800 (USD $246) in 2013, a drastic increase over 2005 levels. And education expenditures have grown even further since: In 2017, for instance, allocations for the Department of Education were increased by fully 25 percent , making education the largest item on the national budget. In 2018, allocations for education increased by another 1.7 percent and currently stand at PHP 533.31 billion (USD $ 10.26 billion), or 24 percent of all government expenditures (the second largest item on the national budget). The higher education budget, likewise, was increased by almost 45 percent between 2016 and 2017. It should be noted, however, that some of the spending increases are simply designed to cover additional costs stemming from the K-12 reforms. To accommodate the reforms, 86,478 classrooms were constructed, and over 128,000 new teachers hired in the Philippines between 2010 and 2015 alone.

Outcomes of the Reforms Thus Far

The government investments in education have led to substantial advances in standard indicators of learning conditions , such as student-teacher and student-classroom ratios, both of which improved significantly from 2010 to 2013, from 38:1 to 29:1 and from 64:1 to 47:1, respectively. Elementary school completion rates also climbed from their 2005 low of under 70 percent to more than 83 percent in 2015 . Net secondary school enrollment rates, meanwhile, increased from under 60 percent in 2005 to 68.15 percent in 2015.

The biggest advances, however, were made in pre-school education . After the introduction of one year of mandatory Kindergarten education in 2011, the net enrollment rate in Kindergarten jumped from 55 percent (2010) to 74.6 percent in 2015. Also encouraging was the fact that poorer families benefited strongly from the reforms. The World Bank noted that in “2008, the gross enrollment rate in kindergarten for the poorest 20 percent of the population was 33 percent, but this had increased to 63 percent by 2013. Levels of kindergarten enrollment in the Philippines now compare favorably with rates in other middle-income countries both within the region and globally”.

That said, the Philippines keeps trailing other South East Asian countries in a variety of education indicators and the government has so far fallen short on a number of its own reform goals. Strong disparities continue to exist between regions and socioeconomic classes – while 81 percent of eligible children from the wealthiest 20 percent of households attended high school in 2013 , only 53 percent of children from the poorest 20 percent of households did the same. Progress on some indicators is sluggish, if not regressing: completion rates at the secondary level, for example, declined from 75 percent in 2010 to 74 percent in 2015, after improving in the years between.

Importantly, the Philippines government continues to spend less per student as a share of per capita GDP than several other Southeast Asian countries, the latest budget increases notwithstanding. It also remains to be seen how the K-12 reforms will affect indicators like teacher-to-student ratios. In October 2015, it was estimated, that the government still needed to hire 43,000 teachers and build 30,000 classrooms in order to implement the changes. Strong population growth will also continue to put pressures on the education system. The Philippines has one of the highest birth rates in Asia, and the government expects the population to grow to 142 million people by 2045.

Outcomes in Higher Education

In higher education, the government seeks to expand access and participation, but even more importantly, tries to improve the quality of education. The Philippine National Development Plan is quite outspoken on this subject and notes that while “the number of higher education institutions (HEIs) in the Philippines is ten times more than its neighboring countries’, the Philippines’ lackluster performance in producing innovators… , researchers (81 researchers per million population versus 205 in Indonesia and 115 in Vietnam), and knowledge producers (28 out of 777 journals or 3.6 percent are listed under Thomson Reuters, Scopus, or both) indicates … that the country has lagged behind many of its ASEAN neighbors in producing the … researchers, innovators … and solutions providers needed to effectively function in a knowledge economy”.

Participation in higher education in the Philippines has, without question, expanded strongly in recent years. The gross tertiary enrollment rate increased from 27.5 percent in 2005 to 35.7 percent in 2014 , while the total number of students enrolled in tertiary education grew from 2.2 million in 1999 to 4.1 million in 2015/16. Filipino experts have noted that the number of graduates from higher education programs has recently “ exceeded expectations .”  The bold decision of President Duterte in 2017 to make education at state universities and colleges tuition-free may help to further boost enrollments, even though critics contend that the costly move will sap the public budget while providing few discernible social benefits . These critics maintain that tuition-free education will primarily benefit wealthier students since only 12 percent of students at state institutions come from low-income households .

At the same time, the K-12 reforms will inevitably lead to decreased higher education enrollments, at least in the short-term, since many of the students that would usually have entered higher education after grade 10 now have to complete two additional years of school. Between 2015/16 and 2016/17, the total number of tertiary students already dropped from 4.1 million to 3.6 million – a decrease that is particularly apparent when looking at undergraduate enrollments. Data from the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) shows that undergraduate enrollments dropped by 12.7 percent between the 2015/16 and 2016/17 academic years, and is expected to drop by a further 22 percent in 2017/18, before starting to recover in 2018/19, when the first K-12 cohorts start to enter higher education.

This downturn will affect HEIs and lead to declining revenues during the transition period – a fact that will primarily hurt private HEIs, since nearly all of their funding comes from tuition fees. As a result, CHED anticipates that approximately 25,000 staff , including faculty and administrators, will lose their jobs. Changes will also be made to the undergraduate curriculum. Since the previous curriculum compensated for the fact that students entered with only ten years of secondary education, the revised curriculum will have greatly reduced general education requirements .

Quality Improvements and Internationalization

Regarding qualitative improvements, achievements are notable in a number of areas, including a slight increase in the number of higher education faculty holding higher degrees. The percentage of instructors with master’s and doctoral degrees grew from 38.87 percent and 11.09 percent in 2010, respectively, to 40.34 and 12.62 percent in 2015 . The number of HEIs with accredited education programs, which is not mandatory in the Philippines, increased by more than 40 percent between 2010 and 2016/17 , while the pass rates of candidates sitting for professional licensing exams , a measure of academic effectiveness, jumped from 33.9 to 58.6 percent between 2010 and 2015.

In an attempt to boost the country’s research output, the government in 2017 also institutionalized the so-called “ Balik (Returning) Scientist Program,” an initiative that was first created in the 1970s to incentivize highly skilled Filipino researchers working abroad to return to the Philippines. Benefits provided through the program include research grants, free health insurance, and relocation allowances. As international education consultant Roger Chao Jr has pointed out , it remains to be seen, however, how effective the program will be, given that the offered incentives and research funding may not be competitive enough to lure established scientists back to the Philippines.

Like most Asian countries, the Philippines also seeks to internationalize its education system and promotes transnational education (TNE) partnerships with foreign HEIs. To formalize this process and assure the quality of the programs offered, CHED in 2016 established concrete guidelines for transnational programs. Importantly, programs can only be offered in collaboration with a Philippine partner institution. Both the foreign provider and the Philippine partner institution must also be officially recognized and seek authorization from CHED, which is initially granted for a one-year period for graduate programs, and for two years in the case of undergraduate programs.

CHED has entered agreements with a number of countries , predominantly in Europe, but its most significant relationship is with the United Kingdom. The British Council , the U.K.’s designated organization to promote international exchange, considers the Philippines an ideal location for a TNE hub, due to its expanding population of university-age students, CHED’s commitment to internationalization, and the use of English as a language of instruction in a majority of higher education programs. In 2016, CHED and the British Council entered an agreement designed to “support twinning, joint degree programmes, dual degrees and franchise models in priority fields of study between institutions in the Philippines and the UK .” In 2017, this was followed by ten Philippine universities, including the country’s top institutions, being designated to receive seed funding to establish TNE programs with British partner universities. The initiative is funded with UK £ 1million (USD $1.4 million) from CHED and UK £ 500,000 (USD $698,000) from the British Council . Programs are slated to commence in the 2018/19 academic year.

International Student Mobility

Outbound mobility.

The thriving TNE partnership between the UK and the Philippines will offer Filipino students access to UK education programs and reflects that there is a growing demand for international education in the country. Over the past 15+ years, the number of Filipino students enrolled in degree programs abroad alone almost tripled from 5,087 students in 1999 to 14,696 students in 2016 ( UNESCO Institute of Statistics – UIS). Given the population size of the Philippines, however, this is not an overly high number when compared, for example, to Vietnam’s 63,703 outbound degree students in 2016. The outbound mobility rate (number of outbound students among all students) in the Philippines is low and remains significantly below the outbound mobility rate of neighboring countries like Malaysia, Vietnam or Indonesia.

That said, the number of outbound degree students has increased consistently over the years and there is good reason to believe that international student flows from the Philippines will expand in the future. Population growth and the prospect of increasing economic prosperity imply that the total number of tertiary students in the country is set to increase rapidly – the Philippines is expected to be among the world’s top 20 countries in terms of tertiary enrollments by 2035 . Filipino students are also well-suited for international mobility, due to their English language abilities. What is more, the K-12 reforms will remove barriers to academic mobility: In an international environment accustomed to 12-year secondary school qualifications, the anachronistic 10-year school system hampered the mobility of Filipino students, both in terms of formal academic qualifications and academic preparedness. Many foreign institutions, for instance, considered the Philippine Bachelor’s degree only equivalent to two years of undergraduate study – a fact that complicated graduate admissions. As we pointed out in an earlier article on the subject, the K-12 reforms are therefore likely to increase outbound mobility .

Future mobility from and to the Philippines may also be facilitated by further economic and political integration in the ASEAN community. The long-term potential for intra-regional student mobility in this dynamic region of 600 million people is tremendous, especially since the ASEAN member states are trying to harmonize education systems and ease international mobility.

Destination Countries

According to the latest available UIS data , Australia is presently the most popular destination country of Filipino students enrolled in degree programs abroad, hosting 4,432 Filipino students (2015). The U.S. was the second most popular destination with just over 3,000 degree students. New Zealand, the U.K. and Saudi Arabia rounded out the top five with 1,105, 698 and 693 Filipino students, respectively. Italy hosted 561 Filipino students and Japan hosted 488. The remaining three countries of the top ten, the United Arab Emirates, Korea and Canada, all had Filipino students numbering in the mid to low 400s.

Four of the top five destinations are English-speaking countries, demonstrating the interest of Filipino students in English-language destinations, with the popularity of Australia and New Zealand likely owed to their geographic proximity. There have been some shifts in destinations, however. While Australia has now overtaken the U.S., which used to be top destination until recently, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates have emerged as new study destinations among the top ten. The latter trend coincides with strong increases in labor migration to these two countries, both of which have been the main destinations of Filipino overseas workers for years. There are also a relatively large number of international Philippine schools in Saudi Arabia, catering to the children of these migrant workers. It is well possible that some of these children continue their post-secondary education in Saudi Arabia.

When comparing international student statistics, it is important to note that these statistics can show substantially deviating numbers, due to factors like different methods of data capture or different definitions of ‘international student’ (degree students versus students enrolled in language programs) etc. The Canadian government, for instance, reports vastly different international student numbers than the UIS. According to these statistics , the number of Filipino international students in Canada has increased by 275 percent between 2006 and 2015, from 817 students to 3,065 students, making the Philippines the 20th largest source country of international students in Canada in 2015. The Canadian government seeks to further boost the inflow of Filipino students, and in 2017 launched a so-called “ Study Direct Stream Program ” in partnership with CHED. The program will streamline and shorten visa processing times, and ease the financial documentation requirements for Filipino students.

In the U.S., by contrast, the Philippines is presently neither a major sending country nor a dynamic growth market. Enrollments of Filipino students have remained largely stagnant and slightly decreased over the past 15+ years. According to the Institute of International Education’s (IIE) Open Doors data, there were 3,130 Filipino students in the U.S. in 2000/01, 3,758 students in 2005/06 and 3,006 students in 2016/17. The current number reflects an increase of 4.6 percent over 2015/16, but given the fluctuations in previous years, it remains to be seen if this can be taken as a sign of a lasting upswing. As of now, the long-standing popularity of the U.S. as an immigration destination for Filipinos is not matched by corresponding international student flows. The Filipino students that are in the U.S. are predominantly enrolled at the undergraduate level (54 percent), while 30 percent studied in graduate programs and 16 percent were registered in non-degree programs and OPT .

Inbound Student Mobility

There is only limited data available for inbound students in the Philippines. The number of foreign students in the country is small by international comparison, but not insignificant – the Philippines hosts substantially more foreign students than the highly dynamic outbound market of Vietnam, for example.

According to the UIS , the number of inbound degree-seeking students in the Philippines has fluctuated strongly over the years and ranged from 3,514 students in 1999 to 5,136 students in 2006 and 2,665 students in 2008, the last year for which the UIS provides data. More recent data from CHED and the IIE’s Project Atlas (which is based on CHED data) reports higher, if equally fluctuating, numbers. Accordingly, there were 7,766 foreign students in the country in 2011/12, followed by 6,432 students in 2014/15, and 8,208 students in 2015/16.

While there is no current data on countries of origin, most of these students come from other Asian countries. According to the Philippine Bureau of Immigration, the top two sending countries between 2004 and 2009 were South Korea and China – with strong growth rates in both cases. Also notable are a growing number of Indian students and a tremendous increase in Iranian student enrollments during that time period. In 2011/12, Koreans accounted for 21.5 percent of international enrollments, followed by Iran and China, with slightly above 13 percent of students each.

In a 2013 study on student mobility in Asia, UNESCO noted that the Philippines benefits from “the use of English as the medium of instruction…; a wide variety of academic programmes; the relatively low cost of living and affordable tuition and other school fees”. But what the strong presence of Korean students, in particular, suggests is that the country’s popularity as an English language training (ELT) destination is one of the strongest drivers of inbound mobility. For Koreans and other Asian students, the Philippines is a popular ELT “budget destination” that offers much lower tuition fees than the UK, Australia, Canada or the U.S., is easily reachable via short direct flights, and affords students the opportunity to combine ELT with beachside vacations.

As a result, ELT enrollments in the country are surging. The Philippines’ Ambassador to the U.S. affirmed in 2015 , that “there are more and more Koreans that are studying English in the Philippines… In 2004, there were about 5,700… The following year, it tripled to about 17,000, in 2012 it was about 24,000. So we’re seeing an increasing number of Koreans. But they’re also from other countries: Libya, Brazil, Russia.” ICEF Monitor recently noted that this boom has caused more and more ELT providers to set up shop in the Philippines, and led the Filipino government to aggressively market the country as an ELT destination.

Administration of the Education System

Education in the Philippines is administered by three different government agencies, each exercising largely exclusive jurisdiction over various aspects of the education system.

The Department of Education oversees all aspects of elementary, secondary and informal education. It supervises all elementary and secondary schools, both public and private. The Department is divided  into two components: the central office in Manila and various field offices, of which there are currently 17 regional offices and 221 provincial and city schools divisions. The central office sets overall policies for the basic education sector, while the field offices implement policies at the local level. The Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) has its own department of education, but for the most part follows national guidelines and uses the national school curriculum.

The Department of Education also has a number of agencies supervising programs that fall outside the country’s formal education system. The Bureau of Alternative Learning System (BALS) , for instance, oversees education programs designed for “out-of-school children, youth and adults who need basic and functional literacy skills, knowledge and values.” Two of its major programs are the Basic Literacy Program (BLP) , which aims to eliminate illiteracy among out-of-school children and adults, as well as the “ Continuing Education: Accreditation and Equivalency (A&E) Program”, which helps school dropouts to complete basic education outside the formal education system.

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in the Philippines is supervised by the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) .  TESDA oversees TVET providers, both public and private, and acts as a regulatory body, setting training standards, curricula and testing requirements for vocational programs.

The main authority in tertiary education is the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) . Directly attached to the Office of the President, CHED has far-reaching responsibilities. It develops and implements higher education policies and provides quality assurance through its oversight of post-secondary programs and institutions, both public and private. CHED sets minimum standards for academic programs and the establishment of new HEIs. It also suggests funding levels for public HEIs and determines how HEIs can use these funds.

Elementary Education

Elementary education in the Philippines consists of six years of schooling, covering grades 1 to 6 (ages 6 to 12). Before the adoption of the K-12 reforms, elementary education was the only compulsory part of the basic education cycle. With the reforms, however, compulsory education has been extended and is now mandatory for all years of schooling, inclusive of grade 12.

It is now also mandatory that children complete one-year of pre-school Kindergarten education before enrolling in elementary school. While it appears that this is not yet consistent practice throughout the entire country, current legislation mandates that all children enroll in Kindergarten at the age of five. Kindergarten education, like all other parts of public schooling, is free of charge at public schools. Upon completion of the mandatory pre-school year, pupils are eligible to attend elementary school – there are no separate admission requirements.

The elementary school curriculum was recently revised and includes standard subjects like Filipino, English, mathematics, science, social science, Philippine history and culture, physical education and arts. One notable and important change, however, is that minority languages (“mother tongues”) are now being used as the language of instruction in the first years of elementary education in areas where these languages are the lingua franca . There are currently 19 recognized minority languages in use. English and Filipino are introduced as languages of instruction from grades 4 to 6, in preparation for their exclusive use in junior and senior secondary high school.  

Secondary Education

Pre-reform : Prior to the 2016/17 school year, when the first cohort entered grade 11 of the new senior secondary cycle, basic education ended after four years of secondary education (grades 7 to 10). Although freely available in public schools to all interested students, these four final years of basic education were not compulsory. Graduating students were awarded a Certificate of Graduation at the end of grade 10, and would progress either to higher education, TVET, or employment.

Post-reform: With the enactment of the K-12 reforms, secondary education was extended from four to six years and divided into two levels: four years of Junior High School (JHS) and two years of Senior High School (SHS), giving the basic education cycle a structure of K+6+4+2. All six years of secondary education are compulsory and free of charge at public schools. Since the construction of public senior high schools and classrooms still lags behind the need created by the K-12 reforms, however, a new voucher system was put in place to subsidize SHS study at private schools. That said, the voucher amount is capped and does not fully cover tuition at most private schools, keeping this option out of reach for socially highly disadvantaged families.  

Private Schools

The size of the private sector in the Philippine school system is considerable. The government already decades before the K-12 reforms started to promote public-private partnerships in education. In these partnerships, the government sponsors study at low-cost private schools with tuition waivers and subsidies for teacher salaries in an attempt to “decongest” the overburdened public system. The Philippine “Educational Service Contracting” program (ESC) is, in fact, one of the largest such systems in the world . It provides the state with a way to provide education at a lower cost than in public schools, with parents picking up the rest of the tab – a fact that has caused critics to charge that the government is neglecting its obligation to provide free universal basic education .

Private high schools in the Philippines teach the national curriculum, must be officially approved and abide by regulations set forth by the Department of Education. In 2014, 18 percent of secondary students, or 1.3 million students , were enrolled in private schools. Fully 5,130 out of 12,878 secondary schools in the Philippines in 2012/13 (about 40 percent) were privately owned. The number of ESC tuition grantees increased by 40 percent between 1996 and 2012 and accounted for almost 60 percent of all private high school students in 2014, reflecting that publicly subsidized private education is a growing trend with increasing numbers of low-cost private schools now entering the Philippine market in the wake of the K-12 reforms.  

Junior High School (JHS)

JHS comprises grades 7 to 10 (ages 12 to 16). Students who complete elementary education at grade 6 automatically progress to JHS – there are no separate entry requirements at both the junior and senior secondary levels, although private schools may require passing of an entrance examination. The JHS core curriculum includes the same subjects as the elementary curriculum, with English and Filipino being used as the language of instruction, depending on the subject.

Pupils are assessed based on written assignments, performance tasks and quarterly assessments (based on tests and/or performance tasks). The minimum passing grade for both single subjects and the cumulative year-end average required for promotion is the grade of 75 (out of 100). Students with lower grades must take remedial classes and improve their grades in order to progress to the next grade. There are no final graduation examinations at both the junior and senior secondary levels.

Pupils interested in pursuing TVET may simultaneously start to explore Technology and Livelihood Education (TLE) subjects in grades 7 and 8, and have the option to start studying these subjects more extensively in grades 9 and 10. Those that complete a sufficient number of hours in TLE subjects and pass TESDA assessments may be awarded a TESDA Certificate of Competency or a National Certificate (see TVET section below).

Senior High School (SHS)

SHS consists of two years of specialized upper secondary education (grades 11 and 12, ages 16 to 18). Students are streamed into academic specialization tracks with distinct curricula. Before enrolling, students choose a specialization track , being restricted in their choice only by the availability of that specialization at the school they plan to attend. The four tracks are:

• Academic Track
• Technical-Vocational-Livelihood (TVL) Track
• Sports Track
• Arts and Design Track

Students in all tracks study a core curriculum of 15 required subjects from seven learning areas, which include: languages, literature, communication, mathematics, philosophy, natural sciences, and social sciences. The grading scale and methods of assessment used in SHS are the same as in JHS, but with a stronger emphasis on performance tasks. Upon completion of grade 12, students are awarded a high school diploma .

The Academic Track is designed to prepare students for tertiary education. It is further divided into four strands : general academic; accountancy, business and management (ABM); humanities and social sciences (HUMSS); and science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM).

The TVL Track is intended for students looking to enter the labor force or pursue further TVET after graduation. It is also divided into four strands : home economics; agriculture/fishery; industrial arts; and information and communications technology (ICT). Graduates that pass the relevant TESDA assessment tests are simultaneously eligible for the award of a TESDA National Certificate I or II (see TVET section below).

The Sports and Arts and Design Tracks are intended to impart “middle-level technical skills” for careers in sports-related fields and creative industries. Enrollments in these two tracks will be comparatively small, however. While the Department of Education expected an estimated 609,000 students to enroll in the academic track, and another 596,000 students to enroll in the TVL track in 2016, only 20,000 students were anticipated to opt for the sports or arts and design tracks.

Overall, it is expected that the new overhauled K-12 curriculum will lead to greatly improved educational outcomes, since it helps “decongest” the highly condensed prior 10-year curriculum. Filipino educators have blamed the old compressed curriculum, at least in part, for the high dropout rates and lack-luster test scores in recent years, since it did not afford students the time necessary to absorb and learn all the material presented to them.  

The Qualifications Framework of the Philippines

In 2012, the government established an official qualifications framework for the Philippines (PQF). The goal of the PQF is to define standards and learning outcomes, ease mobility between different education and training sectors in the Philippines, and to align Philippine qualifications with international qualifications frameworks to facilitate international mobility. Qualifications in the PQF range from secondary-level TVET certificates at levels 1 and 2 to doctoral qualifications at level 8.

Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET)

TVET in the Philippines is designed to train the Philippine labor force and prepare graduates for medium- skilled employment in various vocations, ranging from agriculture to automotive technology, bookkeeping, business services, computer maintenance, information technology, health services, cookery, tourism and hospitality services, carpentry, seafaring, housekeeping, web design or teaching ESL. There were more than 2,000 different training programs on offer in 2015.

While the TVET sector is smaller in terms of total enrollments and remains less popular than the tertiary sector, it nevertheless has expanded rapidly over the past years. Between 2000 and 2016, the number of students enrolled in TVET programs increased by 295 percent, from 574,017 students to 2.27 million students . Graduation rates in TVET programs have improved greatly in recent years and grew from 83 percent in 2010 to 95 percent in 2016 .

The PQF specifies five levels of TVET qualifications. The National Certificate (NC) I and NC II are placed at the secondary level and are designed to impart practical skills in a “limited range of highly familiar and predictable contexts”. These certificates can be earned by secondary school students at the end of grade 10 or grade 12.

The NC III, NC IV and Diploma are post-secondary qualifications at levels 3 to 5 of the PQF. Programs leading to these types of qualifications generally require prior NCs or a high school diploma for admission and involve training at progressive levels of complexity with a greater theoretical focus, designed to train skilled workers in more supervisory functions. NC programs are usually more applied in nature, whereas diploma programs tend to be more theoretically oriented and often offered at universities.

At the NC level, TVET is competency-based, which means that programs are typically not studied or quantified in a concrete number of semesters or years of study. Instead, training programs are often modularized and self-paced – a fact that allows students who are already employed to pursue TVET without having to adhere to a strict schedule of classes. To earn a qualification, students must acquire a set number of “units of competency”, formally certified in Certificates of Competency (COCs). COCs may be awarded upon completion of a set number of hours of instruction, or demonstrated mastery of certain practical competencies. Assessment may involve oral exams, written tests, employer assessment, portfolio or work projects .

It is important to note that NCs and COCs are only valid for a period of five years. After five years, holders of these qualifications must apply for the renewal of their certification and re-registration in a TESDA-maintained Registry of Certified Workers . If TESDA has established new competency standards since the original qualification was issued, applicants must undergo another competency assessment based on the new competency standards.

TVET Institutions and Modes of Delivery

There are three main modes of TVET delivery in the Philippines: institution-based (at schools and centers), enterprise-based (at companies), and community-based (at local government and community organizations).

Institution-based programs are offered by TESDA-administered schools and training centers, as well as by authorized private schools. Some higher education institutions also offer TESDA-approved programs. About half of all TVET students studied in institution-based programs in 2016 . TESDA presently directly maintains 57 schools , including 19 agricultural schools, 7 fishery schools and 31 trade schools, as well as 60 regional training centers catering to regional needs. Most TVET schools, however, are privately-owned. About 90 percent of all TVET providers were private as of 2013, even though public institutions continue to enroll greater numbers of students: In 2016, 54.3 percent of TVET students were enrolled in public schools, compared to 45.7 percent in private institutions.

Enterprise-based programs are typically pursued by trainees who are employed or are training for employment at a company. These practice-oriented programs include apprenticeship programs, so-called “learnership” programs, and dual training programs, a training model adopted from Germany which combines training at a workplace with theoretical instruction at a school. Most of these programs are based on a contract between the trainee and the company and are as of now not very common – only slightly more than 3 percent of TVET students were training in enterprise-based programs in 2016. Apprenticeship programs are usually between four and six months in length, whereas learnership programs are simply shorter apprenticeship programs lasting up to three months. Programs in the Dual Training System (DTS), meanwhile, last up to two years, during which trainees acquire practical job skills augmented by part-time study at a school.

Community-based programs are designed to provide TVET for “poor and marginal groups” at the communal level, often in partnership with local government organizations. Based on local needs and resources, these public programs are not only intended to help upskill marginalized populations, but also aim to support NGOs and local government .

Quality Assurance

TESDA provides quality control for TVET programs through its “Unified TVET Program Registration and Accreditation System “( UTPRAS ). All TVET programs offered at public and private institutions must be taught in accordance with TESDA’s training regulations and be officially registered via UTPRAS. In addition, TVET providers can improve their reputation by seeking accreditation from accrediting bodies like the Asia Pacific Accreditation and Certification Commission , but this is a voluntary process and not required for offering TVET programs in the Philippines.

Articulation between TVET and Tertiary Education Sectors

Until now, the transferability of qualifications and study between the competency-based TVET and tertiary education sectors is limited. However, the Philippine government seeks to create a more open and integrated system. In the “ Ladderized Education Act of 2014 ”, it directed CHED, TESDA and the Depart of Education to establish “equivalency pathways and access ramps allowing for easier transitions and progressions between TVET and higher education”, including “…qualifications and articulation mechanisms, such as, but not necessarily limited to the following: credit transfer, embedded TVET qualification in ladderized degree programs, post-TVET bridging programs, enhanced equivalency, adoption of ladderized curricula/programs, and accreditation and/or recognition of prior learning”. It remains to be seen how these changes will be implemented in the future.

Tertiary Education

Higher education institutions.

The number of HEIs in the Philippines has grown rapidly over the past decades. Between 2007 and 2016/17 alone, the number of HEIs increased from 1,776 to 1,943 . That makes the Philippines the country with the highest number of HEIs in Southeast Asia. For example, the Philippines has more than four times as many HEIs than Vietnam ( 445 in 2015 ), a country with a similar-size population.

Types of HEIs

There are three types of public tertiary education institutions in the Philippines as classified by CHED:

State universities and colleges or SUCs are defined as public institutions “with independent governing boards and individual charters established by and financed and maintained by the national government“. In order to be classified as a university (as opposed to a college), institutions need to offer graduate programs in addition to a minimum number of bachelor programs in a range of disciplines. There are presently 112 SUCs in the Philippines.

Local colleges and universities are public institutions established and funded by local government units. There are presently 107 local universities and colleges.

Other government schools form a category that comprises specialized HEIs that provide training related to public services, such as the Philippine National Police Academy or the Philippine Military Academy, for example. There are presently 14 of these institutions.

Private HEIs

The vast majority – 88 percent – of HEIs in the Philippines, however, are privately owned. There were 1,710 private HEIs in operation in the 2016/17 academic year, which include both religiously affiliated institutions (mostly Catholic schools) and non-sectarian institutions. Most of these institutions offer the same type of tertiary education programs as public institutions and are overseen by CHED. A “ Manual of Regulations for Private Higher Education ” details specific guidelines for private providers.

Many private HEIs in the Philippines are “demand-absorbing” institutions that fill a gap in supply created by the massification of education in the Philippines. Amidst limited capacities and low funding levels in the Philippine higher education system, these institutions offer those students who cannot get admitted into competitive public institutions access to tertiary education. It should be noted, however, that with the exception of top Catholic universities like Ateneo de Manila University, De La Salle University or the University of Santo Tomas, a majority of these institutions are smaller for-profit providers that enroll fewer than 1,000 students. The quality of education at many of these profit-driven institutions tends to be below the standards of prestigious public HEIs.

Enrollment levels at public institutions therefore remain substantial, considering the large number of private HEIs. While the share of private sector enrollments in the Philippines is high by international standards, 45.8 percent of the country’s 3.5 million tertiary students were enrolled in public institutions in the 2016/17 academic year. Just over 39 percent of students studied at state universities and colleges, 6.2 percent at local universities and colleges, and a small minority of 0.17 percent at other government schools. The largest university in the Philippines is presently the public Polytechnic University of the Philippines, which maintains branch campuses throughout the country.  

Quality Assurance and Accreditation

The Philippine Commission on Higher Education (CHED) has far-reaching authority over HEIs, including private institutions. It can authorize the establishment or closure of private HEIs, as well as determine their tuition fees and degree programs. Private HEIs are required to seek permission for their degree programs and to graduate students from these programs. Private institutions that have received this permission are authorized to display a “Special Order Number” (SON) on their academic records. The SON pertains to a specific credential awarded on a certain date and needs to be requested on a continual basis for batches of graduates.

However, CHED can exempt HEIs from the requirement to request SONs by declaring them “autonomous” or “deregulated” institutions – a designation that is granted for five-year periods and reserved for reputable high quality institutions. Autonomous institutions have the freedom to establish new degree programs and design their own curricula, whereas deregulated institutions still need to request permission for new degree programs, but are exempt from the special order requirements. CHED publishes lists of autonomous and deregulated universities on its website .

There is also a separate and voluntary accreditation process in the Philippines that allows HEIs to apply for accreditation of their programs by private accrediting bodies, such as the “Philippines Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities” or the “Philippines Association of Colleges and Universities Commission on Accreditation”. Accreditation is mostly program-based and encouraged by CHED. The Commission incentivizes HEIs to seek accreditation by granting institutions with accredited programs a number of self-regulatory powers, such as financial and administrative autonomy, up to freedom to independently establish new graduate programs. There are four levels of accreditation as set forth by CHED:

• Level I : Programs have undergone initial review and are accredited for three years.
• Level II : Programs have been re-accredited for three to five years, depending on the assessment of the accrediting body. This exempts institutions from applying for the SON, and allows them to redesign the curricula (within limits) and use the word “accredited” on publications.
• Level III : Programs have been re-accredited and fulfill a number of additional criteria, such as a strong research focus and high pass rates of graduates in licensing exams. This level gives HEIs the right to independently establish new programs associated with already existing level III programs.
• Level IV : Programs are considered to be of outstanding quality and prestige, as demonstrated by criteria like publications in research journals and international reputation. HEIs have full autonomy in running their accredited level IV programs and have the right to establish new graduate programs associated with existing level IV programs.

Given that accreditation is not a mandatory requirement, however, only a minority of HEI’s in the Philippines presently seek accreditation of their programs. In the 2016/17 academic year, there were 671 higher education institutions with accredited programs in the Philippines (about 28 percent of all institutions). CHED provides an easy-to-navigate directory of all the recognized higher education programs in the Philippines, organized by institution and region.  

International University Rankings

Compared to other Southeast Asian countries like Thailand, Malaysia or Indonesia, the Philippines is currently not very well-represented in international university rankings. Only one Philippine university was among the 359 universities included in the 2018 Times Higher Education (THE) Asia University Rankings , while ten Thai universities, nine Malaysian universities and four Indonesian universities were included in the ranking. The University of the Philippines, arguably the most prestigious university in the Philippines, is currently ranked at position 601-800 out of 1,102 institutions in the THE world ranking. Four Philippine universities are included in the current QS World University Rankings . These are: the University of the Philippines (367), Ateneo de Manila University (551-600), De La Salle University (701-750) and the University of Santo Tomas (801-1000). No Philippine universities are included in the current 2017 Shanghai ranking .

Enrollments by Type of Program and Field of Study

The vast majority of Filipino students are enrolled at the undergraduate level. Fully 89 percent were matriculated in bachelor-level programs and another 4.8 percent in pre-bachelor programs in the 2016/17 academic year. Graduate level enrollments are still small: Only 5.2 percent of students were enrolled in master’s programs and less than one percent in doctoral programs.

The most popular fields of study in 2016/17 were business administration, education, engineering and technology, information and technology and medical studies. Of the more than 2.2 million students enrolled in these subject areas, about 41 percent chose business administration and almost 33 percent pursued education studies. Engineering, information technology and medical studies accounted for 20 percent, 18 percent and 9 percent, respectively.

University Admissions

Admission into university in the Philippines generally requires the high school diploma. Going forward this means the new K-12 diploma. CHED has announced that beginning in the 2018/19 academic year, holders of the old 10-year high school diploma are expected to complete bridging courses before enrolling in undergraduate programs. In addition, more selective institutions have further requirements such as certain minimum GPA requirements, adequate scores in the National Achievement Test (NAT) or institution-specific entrance examinations. There is no nation-wide university entrance exam as found in other Asian countries.

Degree Structure

Given the impact the U.S. had on the development of the modern Philippine education system, it is not surprising that tertiary benchmark credentials in the Philippines closely resemble the U.S. system. Higher education institutions also follow a two semester system like in the U.S., however the academic year runs from June until March.

Associate Degree

Even though the Associate degree is not included in the Philippine Qualifications Framework, it is still awarded by several institutions in the Philippines. Associate programs are typically two years in length, although some older programs used to be three years in length. Associate programs often have a more vocationally-oriented focus, but also include a general education component and may be transferred into bachelor’s programs. Some institutions offer associate degrees as part of a laddered 2+2 system leading to a bachelor’s degree.

Bachelor’s Degree

Bachelor’s degree programs in standard academic disciplines are four years in length (a minimum of 124 credits, but most typically between 144-180 credits). The credentials awarded most frequently are the Bachelor of Science and the Bachelor of Arts. Bachelor’s programs in professional disciplines like engineering or architecture, on the other hand, are typically five years in length and have higher credit requirements. Programs include a sizeable general education core curriculum in addition to specialized subjects. Until recently, general education courses were typically completed in the first half of the program, while major-specific courses were mostly taken in higher semesters. The K-12 reforms, however, will lead to changes in curricula and likely reduce the general education component in bachelor’s programs.

Master’s Degree

Master’s programs require a bachelor’s degree for admission. Programs are typically two years in length (a minimum of 30 credits, but credit requirements vary from institution to institution). Depending on the discipline, master’s programs may include a thesis or be offered as non-thesis programs, with non-thesis programs usually requiring a higher number of credits and passing of a comprehensive examination.

Doctoral Degree

The doctoral degree is the highest degree in the Philippine education system. Doctoral programs require a master’s degree for admission and typically involve coursework and a dissertation, although some pure research programs without coursework also exist. The most commonly awarded credential is the Doctor of Philosophy. In addition, there are professional doctorates, such the Doctor Technology or the Doctor of Education. Most programs have a minimum length of three years, but students often take much longer to complete the program.

Professional Education

Professional degree programs in disciplines like medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine or law are either post-graduate programs that require a bachelor’s degree for admission or long six-year first degree programs that involve two years of foundation studies after high school. While there are some variations in the programs offered, the general structure is as follows.

Law programs require a bachelor’s degree for admission, are usually four years in length, and conclude with the award of the Juris Doctor. Medical programs lead to the award of the Doctor of Medicine and require four years of study after the bachelor’s degree, including two years of clinical study. Graduate medical education in medical specialties involves a further three to six years of residency training after licensure.

Programs in dental and veterinary medicine, on the other hand, usually do not require a bachelor’s degree for admission. Instead, students are required to complete a two-year preliminary foundation program with a sizeable general education component before commencing professional studies. Students graduate with the Doctor of Dental Medicine or the Doctor of Veterinary Medicine after a total of six years of study.

In order to practice, graduates from professional programs must pass licensing examinations, the standards of which are set forth by a national Professional Regulation Commission . This Commission regulates most professions and oversees more than 40 Professional Regulatory Boards that conduct the relevant licensing exams. Lawyers have to pass bar exams administered by a Bar Examination Committee under the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the Philippines.

Teacher Education

The standard teaching credential in the Philippines is a four-year bachelor’s degree. Elementary school teachers earn a Bachelor of Elementary Education, whereas secondary school teachers earn a Bachelor of Secondary Education, with curricula being tailored to the respective level of education. Curricula are set by CHED and consist of general education subjects, education-related subjects, specialization subjects and practice teaching. Holders of bachelor’s degrees in other fields can earn a teacher qualification by completing a post-graduate program in education. These programs are between one semester and one year in length and lead to a credential most commonly referred to as the Certificate of Professional Education.

Grading Scales

There is no standard grading scale at the tertiary level that all institutions follow. It is more common for HEIs to use their own unique grading scales and include a legend or description of the scale on their academic transcripts. However, there are a few scales which are more common than others. The most common one is the 1-5 scale , with 1 being the highest grade. Also commonly used is a 0-100 scale with a minimum passing grade of 75.

Credit System

The credit system, on the other hand, is fairly standardized. One credit unit usually represents at least 16 semester-hours of classroom instruction and most classes require three hours of in-class study per week. In a typical three-credit course, students, thus, attend classes for 48 hours per semester. In non-lecture based classes, such as labs or other practical courses, one credit is usually equivalent to 32 semester hours.

WES Documentation Requirements

• Graduation Certificate/Diploma – submitted by the applicant
• Academic Transcript – sent directly by the institution attended

Higher Education

• Academic Transcript – sent directly by the institution (if study for one degree was completed at multiple institutions, the last institution attended sends a consolidated transcript)
• For completed doctoral degrees – a written statement confirming the award of the degree sent directly by the institution

Notable Documentation Peculiarities

All study reported on a single transcript: If a student completes study at multiple institutions, the courses taken by this student at different schools (subjects, credits and grades) are all included on the final transcript issued by the last institution attended. The institutions at which the student studied previously will not issue separate transcripts. To document study completed at multiple institutions, it is therefore sufficient to only request a consolidated transcript from the last institution attended (see the sample documents below for an example).

Recognition status of programs : Academic records issued by private institutions may provide cues about the official CHED recognition status of the program in question. The academic records will either indicate the mandatory special order number, or in the case of exempted institutions note their autonomous or deregulated status. If neither a special order number nor the autonomous/deregulated status is indicated on the documents, the program was either not completed, the special order number request is still pending with CHED, or the program is not recognized.

Click  here  for a PDF file of the academic documents referred to below.

• High school diploma and academic transcript (old system)
• High school diploma and academic transcript (K-12)
• National Certificate II
• Bachelor of Arts
• Bachelor of Science
• Master of Science
• Doctor of Philosophy
• Doctor of Medicine

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The Impact of Vocational Training on Labor Market Outcomes in the Philippines

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The paper analyzes how post-secondary technical and vocational education and training (TVET) impacts labor market outcomes in the Philippines.

• http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/WPS200274-2

Findings from the study show that TVET graduates in the Philippines earn significantly higher wages than those who entered the job market with a secondary school education or below. However, individuals who both trained in TVET and pursued tertiary education earn less than those with secondary school or below. This counterintuitive result is explained by the tendency for such dual-level individuals to complete the lowest level of TVET.

• Introduction
• Existing Theory and Evidence
• Technical and Vocational Education and Training in the Philippines
• Models and Methodologies
• Characteristics of the Sample

Additional Details

Published Version

Vandenberg, Paul and Jade Laranjo. 2021. "Vocational Training and Labor Market Outcomes in the Philippines." International Journal of Educational Development 87: 102501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2021.102501 .

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Understanding the impact and benefits of vocational education

Many people choose technical and vocational education to be ready for their careers. As the job market changes, a vocational or technical route can give you the skills to succeed. Vocational training is a popular choice when not pursuing higher education. 

Here, we explore the impact and benefits of vocational education. 

What is a vocational education?  

Benefits of vocational education  .

• Types of vocational education programs  

Skills and competencies developed  

Career opportunities  , conclusion  .

A vocational education teaches the practical skills and knowledge for specific careers. It goes beyond what a formal education offers. The focus is on practical experience instead. A vocational training system prepares you for the workforce and job opportunities. 

In the Philippines, the  Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) manages and supervises technical education and skills development in the Philippines. It is a government agency. 

Vocational training programs prepare students for various trades. These programs equip you with practical skills and knowledge specific to your industry. Here are some trades that might use vocational education to teach industry skills: 

Automotive technology 

Vocational school offers the trade skills to diagnose, repair, and maintain vehicles. These programs combine classroom instruction with hands-on training. Practical instruction and theory help you learn the different components of automotive repairs. 

Construction trades 

Construction trades include carpentry, plumbing, electrical work, and masonry. Vocational construction training focuses on practical skills for building and maintaining structures. The training provides hands-on experience and teaches essential skills for the trade. 

Healthcare professions 

A vocational education can teach you how to care for patients in the  healthcare sector. Medical assistants, dental hygienists, pharmacy technicians, or practical nurses may take vocational courses. 

Culinary arts 

Programs in the culinary arts provide on-the-job training for the food industry. Careers might include working as a chef, managing a restaurant, or working as a cook. 

Information technology (IT) 

Vocational IT programs cover network administration, cyber security, and computer programming, among others. Taking this route can prepare you for roles in the tech industry. 

Cosmetology 

Cosmetology includes vocational training for hairstylists, barbers, nail technicians, and skincare specialists. Students learn practical skills for beauty and personal care. 

Welding courses teach skills such as cutting, joining, and shaping metals. Vocational training prepares you for careers in construction and manufacturing. 

Electrical engineering 

Training for electrician roles teaches how to install, maintain, and wire electrical systems. Practical work includes learning how to use electrical equipment and repair electrical systems. 

Mechanical and HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) 

This program teaches students how to work with HVAC. Vocational training includes installing, maintaining, repairing, and fixing issues with HVAC systems. It's a great chance to start a career in this field if you have an interest in mechanical engineering and HVAC. 

Graphic design and multimedia 

Multimedia programs involve visual content and graphic design. Vocational education can provide the skills for communication in today's digital world. 

Vocational education is important for people who opt out of academic education. They may prefer practical experience in their chosen profession. There are many advantages to choosing vocational education. 

Let's explore how the vocational education and training system contributes to career success. 

• Improved employability and job prospects: Vocational education provides practical knowledge, making you more appealing to employers. Industry training and hands-on experience can give you an edge over other job seekers. 
• Practical skills and hands-on experience: Vocational programs focus on skills and on-the-job experience. Learning is often project-based, reinforcing theoretical knowledge with practical, industry-relevant tasks. Vocational training offers you real-world knowledge and prepares you for your future career. 
• Specialized training in specific industries: Vocational education can fit the industry you want to work in. This ensures that you're well prepared to meet the demands of your chosen field. Industry professionals work together with educators to create up-to-date, relevant curricula. 
• Immediate entry into the workforce: One of the key benefits is the ability to enter the workforce. Many vocational programs have shorter durations than formal education offers. So, a vocational course could help you start on your career path sooner. 
• Continuous learning and skill development: Vocational education promotes a mindset of lifelong learning and adapting to changing trends. Graduates of vocational courses are more likely to continue learning throughout their careers. This can help you to keep up to date with the latest developments in your field. 
• Entrepreneurship and self-employment: Vocational education supports entrepreneurship by offering practical advice on starting and running businesses. These skills create opportunities, helping the economy grow and fostering innovation. 
• Alignment with industry needs: Many industries collaborate to develop vocational programs. Courses teach the skills currently in demand in the job market. Graduates who align their training with goals and values often have successful careers. 
• Diversity of career pathways: Vocational education offers various career pathways, catering to many interests and aptitudes. Examples include healthcare, technology, the building and engineering trades, and creative industries. 

Types of vocational training programs  

Versatility is a cornerstone of vocational education. Providers offer a choice of programs offering specific knowledge in various industries. These include: 

Apprenticeships 

Apprenticeship programs provide training for trades. Apprentices usually work with experienced professionals and earn a wage. The  work-based learning element  provides a great opportunity to gain practical knowledge. 

Trade schools 

Specialist  trade schools teach the necessary skills for specific jobs or industries. They focus on targeted training for particular roles. Jobs might include electricians, dental hygienists, veterinary technicians, and plumbers. 

Vocational high schools 

Vocational schools include hands-on training in their lessons. Students learn from books and gain skills to help prepare them for their future careers. 

Community colleges 

Community colleges provide vocational programs. They usually offer certificates or associate degrees in technical and trade fields. These programs help you gain practical skills that you can apply in the workforce. 

Technical institutes 

There are many institutes dedicated to technical education. They provide in-depth training in technology, engineering, and applied sciences. 

On-the-job training programs 

In some trades, it's easier to learn by doing the work. This way, you can develop your skills while contributing to a specific occupation. 

Vocational or career education goes beyond imparting knowledge. It focuses on building practical skills and competencies for the professional world. Students who undergo vocational training can develop a range of  valuable skills , including: 

• Hands-on technical skills: Technical training is all about learning by doing. The hands-on experience element of vocational programs can help you gain industry skills. 
• Problem-solving and critical thinking: Vocational education teaches you logical thinking. Critical thinking involves studying situations, uncovering problems, and developing good solutions. This skill set is important for a successful career. 
• Teamwork and collaboration: Many programs involve group projects. These help students learn to work together and improve their people skills. These skills are important for success in many workplaces. 
• Communication and interpersonal skills: To improve teamwork, students learn to collaborate and communicate. This practice helps you to collaborate and express yourself better. 
• Industry-specific knowledge and expertise: Learning a trade provides an insight into the industry. Occupational programs help you learn about the job you can choose after your course. 
• Adaptability and resilience: Vocational training is flexible and helps develop resilience. These qualities help you navigate changing job opportunities. 

Vocational education opens a gateway to many  career opportunities across diverse industries. Practical skills and specialized knowledge are important in today's job market. They can prepare you for work in various sectors across diverse fields. Industry skills can serve you well in your career, including: 

• Skilled trades: Consider plumbing, carpentry, and electrical work. These trades offer great opportunities for working with your hands. These trades are essential for constructing and maintaining infrastructure. 
• Healthcare professions: Consider nursing, working as a  dental assistant , or medical coding to get started. These roles help in patient care and medical administration. 
• IT roles: The demand for skilled IT professionals is high. Managing technological infrastructure requires specialists who can navigate the digital landscape. 
• Mechanical and automotive fields: Learn about mechanical and automotive engineering. Mechanical engineers repair vehicles and machinery, ensuring they perform at their best. 
• Tourism and hospitality: The tourism and hospitality industry offers many career opportunities. Careers can range from hotel management and culinary arts to event planning. 

Vocational education is a powerful tool. It gives you practical skills and versatility, opening career paths at your own pace. It covers many careers, from cutting-edge IT roles to trades. It's a great opportunity to explore diverse career paths. Embrace the opportunities vocational education offers. Embark on a journey where your passion meets your purpose. 

• Who can benefit from vocational education?   ⁠Everyone. Vocational education is for anyone looking for hands-on training. It is a way to gain the necessary knowledge and experience you need to succeed in your chosen field.  ⁠
• What are the differences between a traditional degree and a vocational program?   ⁠Traditional degrees often offer a broader education, covering various subjects. Vocational programs focus on the skills you need for a particular profession. Vocational training programs are shorter and emphasize practical training over theoretical knowledge.  ⁠
• How long do vocational training programs typically last?   ⁠Generally, these programs take less time to complete than traditional degrees. Vocational programs can last anywhere from a few weeks to two years. The program's length depends on how complex the job's skills and knowledge are.  ⁠
• How do I choose the right vocational training program for my career goals?   ⁠Consider your career interests and research the in-demand industries. Assess the program's curriculum and its provider's reputation. Look for programs that align with your goals. Make sure the course provides practical training and internships or job placement opportunities.  ⁠
• Can vocational training lead to further education or career advancement?   ⁠Vocational training can open doors to further education or career advancement. Many vocational programs have pathways to higher education institutions. Further education allows you to build on your skills and qualifications. The work experience from vocational training can help you progress in your career. 

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Overview of Education in the Philippines

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• First Online: 24 December 2021

Cite this chapter

• Lorraine Pe Symaco 3 &
• Marie Therese A. P. Bustos 4  

Part of the book series: Springer International Handbooks of Education ((SIHE))

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The Philippines has embarked on significant education reforms for the past three decades to raise the quality of education at all levels and address inclusion and equity issues. The country’s AmBisyon Natin 2040 or the national vision for a prosperous and healthy society by 2040 is premised on education’s role in developing human capital through quality lifelong learning opportunities. Education governance is handled by three government agencies overseeing the broad education sector of the country. At the same time, regional initiatives relating to ASEAN commitments are also witnessed in the sector. However, despite the mentioned education reforms and initiatives, the education system remains beset by challenges. This chapter will give readers an overview of the education system of the Philippines through an account of its historical context and its main providers and programs. Key reforms and issues within the sector are also discussed.

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Batalla EVC, Thompson MR (2018) Introduction. In: Thompson MR, Batalla EVC (eds) Routledge handbook of the contemporary Philippines. Routledge, New York, pp 1–13

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Symaco, L.P., Bustos, M.T.A.P. (2022). Overview of Education in the Philippines. In: Symaco, L.P., Hayden, M. (eds) International Handbook on Education in South East Asia. Springer International Handbooks of Education. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8136-3_1-1

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The State of Vocational Education in the Philippines [2023 Infographic]

Explore the infographic on the "State of Vocational Education in the Philippines 2023," and gain valuable insights into the current landscape to help you stay ahead of disruption.

Discover the following key findings:

• More than two-thirds of vocational institutions in the Philippines reported seeing an increase in competition from universities via non-traditional courses.
• 78% of vocational institutions reported that the current inflationary environment has had a moderate or major impact on their institution.
• More than ever, technology usage is integral to success, with 97% of educators believing their use of technology has impacted student success.
• Institutions continue to use an LMS, with 94% reporting an increase in LMS use over the past year.
• More than half of institutions reported moderately or majorly struggling with ability to scale enrolments (63%), institutional profitability (59%), and student satisfaction with course (57%) being reported as the top three areas of concern.
• The infographic sheds light on the increasing influence of generative AI tools and how educators are using them.
• The infographic also presents insights from administrators and trainers in the Philippines, highlighting that progressive students are better positioned to navigate disruption. Institutions with heavy LMS use reported significantly better ability to scale enrolments, higher student completion rates, better student retention, and higher profitability.

To gain a comprehensive understanding of the state of vocational education in the Philippines ,  download the complete report.

Philippine Education Today: Statistics, Challenges, Opportunities

Education isn’t solely about academic achievement; it’s a powerful catalyst for poverty reduction, social equality, and holistic national development. The Philippines’ commitment to enhancing its education landscape echoes its aspiration to unlock the potential of every citizen, regardless of their background.

Since time immemorial, education in the Philippines has played a vital role in building the backbone of society— its leaders. Through education, the country produces its top economists, researchers, politicians, lawyers, teachers, anthropologists, and artists. It’s a cornerstone of national development, contributing to growth, social progress, and stability.

In this article, we delve into important education statistics, enrollment trends, literacy rates, and both global and local challenges, underscoring the Philippines’ commitment to empowering its citizens.

The Philippine Educational Landscape: Trends and Statistics

For the first time in two years, enrollment dropped below the pre-pandemic levels, with only 26.6 million students registered for the 2023-2024 school year. ( philstar ).

The Department of Education (DepEd) noted a decline in registration for the 2023-2024 academic year, marking the end of a two-year growth trend since the onset of the pandemic.

Several factors may be attributed to this decline, including weather disturbances that disrupted the registration process and the ongoing effects of COVID-19. In 2020, the pandemic also led to a drop in enrollment, with the number of enrolled students decreasing from 27.03 million to 26.23 million.

These fluctuations raise concerns about potential learning loss and underscore the challenges in achieving educational stability amid ongoing disruptions.

The Commission on Higher Education (CHEd) has projected an attrition rate of 35.15% for universities and colleges in the 2023-2024 academic year. ( Inquirer )

The projections represent a slight decrease from the previous year’s rate of 40.98%.

The COVID-19 pandemic, along with the rising cost of living and an assistance gap, played significant roles in the increase in attrition rates over the past years, particularly affecting private schools where many students halted their studies due to financial constraints. 

The decrease to 35.15% indicates a positive trend post-COVID, but it calls for a review of the support students need in universities and colleges.

While 49% of the wealthiest segment attends higher education, this figure drops to only 17% for the least affluent. ( Philippine Business for Education )

Even before the COVID-19 pandemic, the Philippines struggled with educational issues, including having equitable access to quality education. This issue remained elusive, with low secondary and tertiary education completion rates.

The pandemic further exacerbated these problems, leading to school closures and a transition to blended learning and online classes, which required access to tablets and laptops. This left over a million students unable to enroll.

Despite the presence of scholarships and support programs, they often fall short of bridging the financial gap. These disparities are interconnected with broader societal inequalities, including healthcare, nutrition, and living conditions, further impeding access to higher education for the less affluent.

A recent statistic shows that the Philippines has reached an impressive 97% literacy rate. ( Esquire )

Recent statistics show that in 2020, the literacy rate was slightly higher among females (97.1%) than males (96.8%), with the National Capital Region (NCR) boasting the highest literacy rate at 98.9%.

Various factors have contributed to this rise, including government-supported free college tuition, benefitting 4.1 million student enrollees in 2022, as reported by ABS CBN News . 

Enrollment trends have shown a preference for courses in high-demand fields, including criminology, engineering, technology, IT-related disciplines, and social and behavioral sciences, indicating Filipinos’ strong desire for education. 

However, while enrollment has increased, graduation rates have remained stagnant, and dropout rates persist at about 34%. This underscores the need to address challenges beyond access, focusing on retention and graduation rates.

DepEd has set classroom-to-student ratios at 1:35 for primary school and 1:40 for junior and senior high school. ( Rappler )

The significant deficit of 91,000 classrooms for the 2023-2024 school year highlights the need for innovative solutions and investments in educational infrastructure. Government institutions can explore public-private partnerships and modern construction methods and utilize available spaces more efficiently to bridge this considerable gap.

Moreover, this situation emphasizes the importance of revisiting classroom-to-student ratios, potentially leading to more optimized and flexible teaching environments.

Challenges in the Philippine Educational System

Amid these opportunities, several persistent challenges continue to hinder the delivery of quality education. Here’s a list to remember:

Insufficient funding 

Insufficient funding has a far-reaching impact on school facilities and teachers’ salaries. Budget-strapped schools struggle to provide resources, scholarships, and tech access. This hampers their ability to implement essential reforms and effectively update curricula.

In the academic year of 2020–2021 , close to four million students could not enroll. Alarmingly, around 50% of out-of-school youths belonged to families within the bottom 30% of the income distribution.

Reduced per-pupil funding rates can lead to a shortage of educators, resulting in imbalanced teacher-to-student ratios, overcrowded classrooms, and decreased interactions between teachers and students.

Educational disparities

The lack of more uniform funding can cause educational disparities, highlighting a stark urban-rural divide and showcasing significant variances in academic quality. The educational gap can also be seen in the courses offered, as rural universities often can’t provide specialized programs like BS Tourism Management due to a lack of proper facilities and resources.

In universities in the Philippines, the lack of funding typically shows that urban areas enjoy better-funded and more technologically equipped schools, offering a broader range of educational opportunities and extracurricular activities. On the other hand, students and schools in rural regions face resource limitations, inadequate facilities, and a scarcity of qualified teachers.

The lack of funding means an inability to purchase more up-to-date equipment. Moreover, it deters the inflow of educators to these areas because they know they won’t be compensated well. This discrepancy perpetuates unequal opportunities for students, ultimately impacting their learning outcomes and prospects.

Curriculum and teaching issues

The Philippines grapples with an outdated curriculum that often fails to align with the job market’s and society’s evolving needs. This leaves students ill-prepared for the demands of the modern world.

Additionally, conventional teaching methods emphasize memorization and teacher-centered instruction when the system could explore many more teaching methods. Focusing on these teaching methods hinders critical thinking and creativity , impacting students’ ability to adapt to a rapidly changing world. 

Digital divide

The reliance on online learning during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic exposed gaping disparities in digital access. Students in remote regions often lacked internet connectivity and devices, forcing educators to explore unconventional means to reach them.

This digital divide is detrimental to university students, especially those pursuing technology-related courses like BS Information Technology, as they require access to advanced technology and uninterrupted internet connectivity.

Teacher shortages

The Philippines faces a severe teacher shortage driven by high student-to-teacher ratios, budget constraints, and sluggish hiring procedures.

DepEd Undersecretary for Human Resource and Organization Development Gloria Jumamil-Mercado noted that they ideally aim for a student-to-teacher ratio of 30 students per teacher. However, she shares, “Our shortage right now is at 86,000 teachers, and for 2024, we have an allocation of 20,000. The ratio that we have currently is still 1:40.”

This scarcity of educators disproportionately impacts private schools, mainly due to the extended basic education program (K-12). Competent teachers are increasingly drawn to public schools, affecting teacher retention and limiting educational resources in remote areas.

Limited resources and low teacher salaries lead to issues in education, including increased dropout rates, more out-of-school youth, and bureaucratic inefficiencies impacting the overall quality of education.

Opportunities in the Philippine Educational System

Despite the challenges, the Philippine educational system presents a promising landscape with opportunities for transformation and progress. Here are some of these opportunities:

Investment prospects

The Philippine education system offers investment opportunities to improve facilities, create new teaching positions, develop human resources, and acquire learning tools.

These investments not only foster educational improvement but also offer financial returns. More investments mean more opportunities for students to attain quality education, including in-demand degrees like BS Business Administration, with reduced financial concerns.

Strengthening public-private partnerships

Joint initiatives that bring together the strengths of both the public and private sectors can significantly improve funding for education. By bridging the gap between these sectors, the government can ensure equal opportunities for students and teachers, regardless of their chosen sector.

By combining resources and expertise, public-private partnerships drive innovation and address critical challenges in the Philippine education system, improving accessibility and quality.

Exploration of varied teaching methods

Diversifying teaching approaches opens opportunities for a more inclusive and effective education system with meaningful learning experiences . These diverse teaching methods include peer learning, case-based learning, team-based learning, active learning, problem-based learning, and experiential learning.

Adapting instruction for diverse learning styles and student needs improves engagement, supports educators, and enhances the learning experience.

Comprehensive technology integration 

Though relatively new , technology integration is poised to steer the Philippine education system to a more long-term and effective road. Technology enables remote learning, making education accessible even in remote areas.

Furthermore, technology-driven innovations can enhance teaching methods, as discussed in the previous point, and engage students effectively—making education more adaptable, interactive, and practical.

Improvement of system-teacher relations

By fostering a stronger connection between the education system and teachers, schools can cultivate a more supportive environment. This, in turn, has the potential to elevate job satisfaction among teachers, with positive ripple effects on student learning outcomes. 

Such an approach enhances teachers’ well-being and job performance. It fosters harmony, empowering all sectors toward a more refined education system.

Walk the Path to Educational Excellence

Knowledge is the cornerstone of progress and the transformation of lives. In the Philippines, many universities offer diverse programs, including sought-after degrees like BS Biology, BS Medical Technology, and BS Accountancy, reflecting the commitment to accessible, high-quality education.

With how many universities are in the Philippines and the boundless opportunities that await, it’s only fitting to align yourself with a school that speaks the same advocacies of achieving feats and fostering multiple intelligences.

The Trinity University of Asia is committed to guiding your academic journey. Our extensive list of educational degrees and programs is designed to empower aspiring students to reach their academic achievement and help them make their mark on their own stories.

Join us in shaping a better tomorrow. Contact us today to take the first step toward your future!

Related Links

– Bachelor of Science in Tourism Management – Bachelor of Science in Biology – Bachelor of Science in Business Administration – Bachelor of Science in Information Technology

For research

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